VITAL VILLAGES, THRIVING TOWNS

1. VITAL VILLAGES, THRIVING TOWNS

2. IRON TOOLS AND AGRICULTURE • Iron use began around 3000 years ago. • Three major inventions which helped improve agriculture:- • Axes – for clearing forests • Iron ploughshare • New irrigational methods – canals, wells, tanks and artificial lakes

3. WHO LIVED IN THE VILLAGES? NORTHERN INDIA SOUTHERN INDIA Grama bhojaka Vellalar Grihapati Uzhavar Kadaisiyar/adimai Dasa karmakara • Vellalar and gramabhojaka were large landowners. They also used to collect taxes and helped to maintain law and order. • Uzhavar and Grihapati were ordinary ploughmen. They were independent and small land owners. • Kadaisiyar/adimai and dasakarmakara were landless labourers including slaves who earned their livin working on other’s fields.

4. EARLY LITERATURE • Sangam literature in Tamil were composed 2300 years ago. They were composed and compiled in assemblies of poets that were held in Madurai. • Jatakas were probably composed by ordinary people and preserved by Buddhist monks. They tell stories about common man and his life.

5. EVIDENCES FOR EARLY CITIES • Sculptures used to decorate railings, pillars and gateways of buildings. • Cities which were capitals of mahajanapadas, which had massive fortification walls. • Ring wells, used as toilets, drains and garbage dumps. • Palaces, markets and homes of ordinary people. • Accounts of sailors and travellers who visited.

6. CITIES WITH MANY FUNCTIONS - MATHURA • Located at crossroads of two major routes of travel and trade. • There were fortifications around the city and several religious shrines like Buddhist monasteries, Jaina shrines and Krishna shrines. • Farmers and herders from adjoining cities provided food to cities. • Centre of extremely fine sculptures. • Around 2000 years ago, it became the second capital of Kushanas.

7. CRAFTS AND CRAFTS PERSONS The Northern Black Polished Ware: Got the name of the place where it was found (northern part of the subcontinent ) Black in colour Has a fine sheen. Cloth The manufacture of cloth was important Famous centres such as Varanasi in the north, and Madurai in the south Both men and women worked in these centres 7

8. SHRENIS Association of crafts persons and merchants known as shrenis. 8

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12. ARIKAMEDU

13. A coastal settlement between 2200 and 1900 years ago where ships unloaded goods. • A warehouse made of brick was found. • Pottery like amphorae and Arretine ware originating from the Mediterranean region found. • Amphorae: tall double handled jars containing wine or oil. • Arretine ware: stamped red glazed pottery made by pressing wet clay into stamped mould. 13

14. ARIKAMEDU • Small tanks used as dyeing vats used to dye clothes found. • Evidence of the making of beads and semi-precious stones and glass • Several pieces of pottery have inscriptions in Brahmi, which was used to write Tamil.