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Data Collection

Data Collection. Operationalize Objective Systematic Consistent. Data Grammatical point Datum--singular Data--plural. Pieces of information

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Data Collection

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  1. Data Collection Operationalize Objective Systematic Consistent

  2. DataGrammatical pointDatum--singularData--plural • Pieces of information Data collection, the phase in which the research comes alive. The real world is encountered and small unexpected problems surface. The “meat” of the research process.

  3. Types of Data • Qualitative--characterized by words • Quantitative--characterized by numbers Most qualitative data can be quantified which makes analysis easier. Which levels of measurement represent the quantification of qualitative data and what are the limitations of analysis?

  4. Data Gathering Techniques • Observation • Questioning Which technique is used depends on many things: • nature of data • sample • operational definition of variable • sense of situational appropriateness

  5. Data domains Cognitive--paper and pencil Affective--interview Psychomotor--observation

  6. Observation • Collect data on behavior • One way, e.g. Subject to researcher • observing, interpreting, recording

  7. Questioning • Captures non-observable phenomenon (or that which would create undue hardship to observe) • Opinions, attitudes, perceptions, past experiences, feelings, knowledge, etc. • Two way, researcher to subject--subject to researcher • asked/answered, heard/recorded. • Interviewing, questionnaires, paper and pencil tests

  8. Errors of reporting, interpretation, and recording • Both observation and questioning subject to errors or bias from subject or researcher.

  9. “Straight” observer does not contribute or distract from situation accurate data not distracted or responsible better in crisis or fast-paced situations hawthorne effect Participant observer observer part of situation--blends in richer data-difficult when caught up in action becomes a subject as well as researcher not good in emergency situations avoids Hawthorne Observation--two observer roles

  10. Recording Observational Data Coding--very important--limits on the spot decision making for researcher Checklist Items of interest are listed and a check is made if observed Must be clear enough so that recorders agree e.g. “crying” vs. “tears in eyes” May record how many times action occurs but not qualitative nature of occurrence.

  11. Video and Audio tapes • Often used in clinical research • Enhances reliability of measurement but still requires inference to interpret data. • Data must still be classified and coded for analysis.

  12. Behavioral Diary • Halfway between observing and recording • Data collector simultaneously observes and records observations into a tape recorder. • Data still must be classified and coded. • May be intrusive and enhance Hawthorne effect.

  13. Memory Reconstruction • Participant observer may do this • “Process Recording” technique • Data collector completes observation and immediately records observations, or an interaction may be conducted by one researcher and observed by another who records it afterwards. Some error in remembering--better with two=interrater reliability.

  14. Interviews Questionnaires Self-reports Attitudes Opinions Feelings Beliefs Questioning

  15. Questionnaire Self administered paper and pencil instrument designed for individuals to complete with little or no explanation or instruction Interview Set of questions designed to be asked by the interviewer, who then records the answers. “interview schedule”=questions

  16. Questionnaires easier and cheaper to administer, harder to construct easy to analyze large sample, poor response rate closed or forced choice response (no anecdotal) no opportunity to explain or interpret superficial data lie scale Interviews easier to construct, expensive to administer hard to analyze smaller sample, good response rate open ended questions (rich data) may answer questions qualitative in-depth data assess validity on the spot

  17. Both questionnaires and interviews • Analyze problem to determine needed data • Explain purpose of study-who interviewer is • Expectations of respondent • Confidentiality • avoid jargon to minimize intimidation • use mechanisms to minimize defenses • Projective techniques--some people, friends’ behavior (Rorschach) • single focus--avoid double barreled questions • nondirective probes (interviews only)

  18. Provide privacy during interview • keep to a reasonable length • use “funnels” start with broad area and narrow down to specific • make sequence and relationship of one question to another clear • precode for analysis

  19. Factors motivating increased response rate • Altruism • Don’t distribute in holiday or vacation season • Hand address envelopes • Neatness, clarity and brevity of instrument • Less than 20 minutes to complete • Ease of completion • Guarantee of anonymity • Personal signature of researcher • SASE • Follow up phone calls • Card of intent.

  20. Reactive Arrangementsaffect what kind of validity? • Hawthorne--overall classification • role selection--social desirability effect • demand characteristics--good subject role • response sets (paper and pencil more often) • acquiescence sets • nay sayers • fence sitters • interviewer effects--halo and reverse halo Lie scales/debriefing Unobtrusive measures

  21. Unobtrusive Measures (Webb) • Designed to avoid reactive effects (hawthorne) • No obvious direct observation or questioning • Physical traces • erosion • accretion • Archives • records or diaries • contrived observation • hidden hardware

  22. Scales and Instruments Likert scale • attitudes/agreement • large number of items (1/2 pos. 1/2 neg.) lie scale • ranked responses--”score” +2 +1 0 -1 -2 Agree str. Agree uncertain disagree disagree str

  23. Linear graphic scale • Forced choice but more freedom than likert • rank ordered choice l______l______l______l______l______l 0 1 2 3 4 5

  24. Visual Analog Scale (VAS) Place a check on the line which represents the degree of craving for a cigarette after dinner on day two of smoking cessation. None Severe

  25. Semantic differential scale(osgood) • Bipolar adjective pairs on a linear scale • Designed to avoid face validity so may get at unacknowledged beliefs, attitudes easy ___________________________ difficult fast ___________________________ slow warm ___________________________ cold happy ___________________________ sad open ___________________________ closed clear ___________________________ confusing fun ___________________________ work rich ___________________________ poor

  26. Other data gathering instruments and techniques • Subject self-reports • Sociometrics • Delphi technique • Using available data

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