Chapter 4 Fostering Learning and Reinforcement

1. Chapter 4Fostering Learning and Reinforcement • Overview of Learning Theories • Learning Through Rewards and Punishments* • Contingencies of Reinforcement* • Schedules of Reinforcement* • Social Learning Theory • Case: Henry Butts Oldsmobile

2. Nature of Learning • Learning is a relatively permanent change in knowledge or observable behavior that results from practice or experience. • Importance of Learning to OB* [Not in Text] • Most organizational behavior is learned (remember that only 2-12% of behavior is directly linked to personality) • By controlling the situation, a manager can influence behavior/performance • The manager is held accountable for the performance of his/her subordinates

3. Overview of the Three Types of Learning • Classical Conditioning: The learning of “involuntary,” reflexive behavior, such as emotional reactions • Operant Conditioning: The learning of voluntary, goal-directedbehavior through the direct experience of consequences • Social Learning: The learning of voluntary, goal-directedbehavior through observation and imitation of others

4. Classical Conditioning Unconditioned stimulus (food) Reflex response (salivation) Conditioned stimulus (metronome)

5. Examples of Operant Behaviors and Their Consequences • works and is paid. • is late to work and is docked pay. • enters a restaurant and eats. • enters a football stadium and watches a football game. • enters a grocery store and buys food. BEHAVIORS CONSEQUENCES The Individual

6. Examples of the Three Types of Learning:Which Example Illustrates Each Type? • After a tightening in policy regarding lateness, a worker sees a coworker fired for excessive tardiness, resulting in increased attention to arriving on time • After a tightening in policy regarding lateness, a worker receives a written reprimand for being late twice in one month, resulting in increased attention to arriving on time • After witnessing a coworker’s accidental loss of several fingers in a machinery accident, a worker experiences anxiety when operating the same piece of machinery

7. Contingency of Reinforcement* • Definition: The relationship between a behavior and the preceding and following environmental events that influence that behavior • Basic Components: • Antecedent -- the stimulus that precedes the behavior • Behavior -- the behavior emitted in response to the stimulus • Consequence -- the positive or negative consequence of the behavior • Important Note: Managers can often control the contingencies of reinforcement influencing their subordinate’s behavior, and thereby, the behavior itself

8. Example of Contingent Reinforcement NO Manager is silent or reprimands employee Manager and employee set goal Does employee achieve goal? Manager compliments employee for accomplishment YES Employee Task Behavior Consequences (result of the behavior) Reinforcement Contingent on Consequence Antecedent (precedes the behavior)

9. Categories of Reinforcers • All reinforcers fall into one of two categories: • Primary Reinforcers -- Based upon the satisfaction of physiological needs, such as food, water, air, sex, escape from pain, etc. (Note that the text defines this as: “an event for which the individual already knows the value.”) • Secondary Reinforcers -- Learned reinforcers; the text defines this as “an event that once had neutral value but has taken on some positive or negative value for an individual because of past experience.”

10. Types of Contingencies of Reinforcement* Event is Added Event is Removed (best to use) Positive reinforcement (increases behavior) Pleasant Event Omission (decreases behavior) Unpleasant Event Negative reinforcement (increases behavior) Punishment (decreases behavior) (worst to use)

11. Rewards Used by Organizations MATERIAL REWARDS Pay Pay raises Stock options Profit sharing Deferred compensation Bonuses/bonus plans Incentive plans Expense accounts SUPPLEMENTAL BENEFITS Company automobiles Health insurance plans Pension contributions Vacation and sick leave Recreation facilities Child care support Club privileges Parental leave STATUS SYMBOLS Corner offices Offices with windows Carpeting Drapes Paintings Watches Rings Private restrooms SOCIAL/INTER- PERSONAL REWARDS Praise Developmental feedback Smiles, pats on the back, and other nonverbal signals Requests for suggestions Invitations to coffee or lunch Wall plaques REWARDS FROM THE TASK Sense of achievement Jobs with more responsibility Job autonomy/self-direction Performing important tasks SELF-ADMINISTERED REWARDS Self-congratulation Self-recognition Self-praise Self-development through expanded knowledge/skills Greater sense of self-worth

12. Negative Reinforcement* • Definition: An unpleasant event is occurring which can be removed by emitting the desired behavior • Differs from punishment, but may result from the fear of punishment • Two types are identified: • Escape Learning: An unpleasant event occurs until the employee emits an “escape response” to terminate it • Avoidance Learning: An employee prevents an unpleasant event from occurring by emitting the proper behavior [Not in Text]

13. Potential Negative Effects of Punishment* Recurrence of undesirable employee behavior Undesirable emotional reaction Short-term decrease in frequency of undesirable employee behavior But leads to long-term • Aggressive, • disruptive • behavior Undesirable employee behavior Punishment by manager Antecedent Apathetic, noncreative performance Fear of manager Which tends to reinforce High turnover and absenteeism

14. Punishment and Interpersonal Relations*[Not in Text] • The inappropriate use of punishment increases with: • Anger and/or frustration on the part of the manager • Inadequate interpersonal communication • In such cases, this inappropriate punishment creates long term interpersonal problems, by: • Reducing trust • Stifling motivation • Undermining and/or destroying relationships

15. How to Make Punishment Effective Managers should: • Use the principles of contingent punishment, immediate punishment, and punishment size • Praise in public, punish in private • Develop alternative desired behavior • Balance the use of pleasant and unpleasant events • Use “positive discipline” (i.e., change behavior through reasoning, with an emphasis on personal responsibility or “self control,” rather than by imposing increasingly severe punishments)

16. Guidelines for UsingContingencies of Reinforcement Managers should: • Not reward all employees the same (i.e., take individual differences into account to reward employees with consequences that they personally value, within the constraints of perceived equity) • Consider consequences of both actions and non-actions • Make employees aware of what behavior will be reinforced (and then be sure to reinforce it uniformly) • Let employees know what they are doing wrong • Not punish in front of others • Make their response equal to workers’ behavior

17. Schedules of Reinforcement* • Definition: The determination of when reinforcers are applied; after every response or only after some responses • Two general categories of schedule are: • Continuous Reinforcement: Every behavior is reinforced; the simplest schedule • Intermittent Reinforcement: Only some behaviors are reinforced; four types are identified in the text: • Fixed Interval: based on a fixed time interval • Fixed Ratio: based on a fixed number of responses • Variable Interval: based on a variable time interval • Variable Ratio: based on a variable number of responses

18. Comparisons of Schedules of Reinforcement FORM OF REWARD INFLUENCE ON PERFORMANCE EFFECTS ON BEHAVIOR SCHEDULE Fixed interval Leads to average and irregular performance Fast extinction of behavior Reward on fixed time basis Fixed ratio Reward tied to specific number of responses Moderately fast extinction of behavior Leads quickly to very high and stable performance Variable interval Reward given after varying periods of time Leads to moderately high and stable performance Slow extinction of behavior Variable ratio Reward given for some behaviors Leads to very high performance Very slow extinction of behavior

19. Social Learning Theory • Learning viewed as knowledge acquisition through the mental processing of information • Individuals learn voluntary behaviors by observing the behavior/consequences of others, cognitively processing that information, and then imitating, or not repeating, that behavior

20. Five Dimensions ofSocial Learning Theory Vicarious Learning Symbolizing Forethought Self-Control Self-Efficacy

21. Explanation of theFive Dimensions of Social Learning Theory • People use symbols as cognitive models that serve to guide their behavior • People use forethought to anticipate, plan, and guide their behaviors and actions • People learn vicariously (indirectly) by observing the behavior of others and the real or imagined consequences of those behaviors • People exhibit self-control by taking personal responsibility to learn new behavior even though there is no external pressure to do so • People have differing levels of self-efficacy, which differentially influences their learning and behavior

22. Self-Efficacy* Definition: Refers to the individual’s confidence in their ability to perform a specific task in a specific situation • Varies by people and tasks • Strongly influences learning, with higher levels facilitating learning by enhancing goal setting, effort, and persistence toward success • Managers can and should influence subordinate’s self-efficacy levels

23. Self-Efficacy at Work HIGH “I know I can do the job and have outstanding quality” • Set goals • Preserve/practice • Creatively solve problems • Visualize success • Learn from failure Past Accomplishments Performance of Others LOW Self-efficacy • Avoid difficult tasks • Think of excuses for failing • Develop low aspirations • Quit • Blame setbacks on lack of ability or luck Emotional State “I don’t think I can do the job on time and have outstanding quality”

24. How Managers Can ApplySocial Learning Theory Managers should: • Identify behaviors that lead to improved performance • Select an appropriate model • Make sure that employees have requisite skills • Create a positive learning situation • Provide positive consequences for successful performance (i.e., reinforcement) • Develop organizational support for new behaviors (i.e., maintain proper contingencies of reinforcement)

25. Henry Butts Oldsmobile Case Questions • How effective is Henry Butts’ management strategy? • Which component of this strategy is now illegal? What is used in its place? • Identify or speculate on examples in the case of the following concepts from the chapter: • Operant learning; social learning • Secondary reinforcement • Positive reinforcement, negative reinforcement, punishment • Escape or avoidance learning • Continuous, fixed ratio, and fixed or variable interval reinforcement schedules