Grammar for A-level English Language

1. Grammar for A-level English Language Dick Hudson St Francis Xavier College, June 2008

2. Plan • An animated description of basic sentence structure • with some notation • A collection of interesting variations • with some terminology • A grammatical treasure hunt • in seven extracts

3. The extracts • Grammar joke • The Owl and the Pussycat • Oliver Twist • Directgov: vehicle taxation • A grammarian's funeral (Browning) • The Sun:Blues warned off Kaka move • Northern Ireland Transcribed Corpus of Speech

4. Basic sentence structure verb dependents Has a tense make made verb dependents predicative subject object parents noun babies happy word noun O P T S

5. Hunt for … • A verb with just one word as its subject and no O or P or other dependent. • 1: He arrives, and, … • A sentence containing the verb BE three times, with adjective or place adverb as P. • 6: “But signing Kaka is impossible, because he is here at AC Milan and will be here until the end of his career.”

6. Modifying a verb make verb S P O noun word happy parents noun babies often adverb preposition with noun smiles

7. Hunt for … • A verb modified by a monosyllabic adverb standing immediately before it. • 4: Vehicles that are exempt from vehicle tax stillneed to display a tax disc. • A verb with S, O and a following modifier, each of which is just one word. • 2: So they took it away, and were married next day …

8. Modifying a noun make verb S P O noun word happy parents noun babies preposition with adjective healthy the normal range of baby behaviour such as …..

9. One alternative notation … Healthy babies with normal behaviour make parents happy. S P O

10. …and another… Healthy babies with normal behaviour make parents happy. S P O noun phrase clause

11. …and another Healthy babies with normal behaviour make parents happy.

12. Phrases and clauses • A phrase is a group of words that depend on one word. • That word is the phrase’s head. • The phrase can be classified according to its head • e.g. ‘noun phrase’, ‘preposition phrase’ • A phrase headed by a verb is called a clause.

13. Hunt for … • no + adj + noun + preposition + the + noun • 3: which I need not trouble myself to repeat, inasmuch as it can be of no possible consequence tothereader • Nouns contrasted only by their preceding adjectives and by this/that. • 5: Thatlow man seeks a little thing to do, / Sees it and does it:/ This high man, with a great thing to pursue, / Dies ere he knows it. (x 2)

14. Predicatives make verb P S O noun parents noun happy adjective babies adults noun into adults preposition cry verb

15. Hunt for … • Predicative = a noun modified by a preposition • 3: it remained a matter of considerable doubt • Predicative = a noun modified by an adjective • 4: If you’re a disabled person, …

16. Verb chains seem S P We to have S P been P trying P to start ……

17. Hunt for … • A chain of three verbs: verb + not + verb + verb • 6: Kaka will not be heading to Stamford Bridge • A chain of three verbs where the third verb does not have the same subject as the others • 7: I know I'veheard tell, …

18. Six interesting variants • Subject-auxiliary inversion • Auxiliary contraction • Topicalisation • Subject delay • Postposing • Extraposition

19. Subject-auxiliary inversion is P S S he ready. He Verbs like is: BE, HAVE, WILL, CAN, DO, .. But NOT: GET, BECOME, TRY, …

20. Why put aux first? • Because it could be negative: • He ready. • he ready? • So we focus on ‘truth’. • Is he ready? = Is it true that he’s ready? isn’t is Isn’t Is

21. Hunt for … • inverted aux + S = ‘if’ • 5: That, has the world here – should he need the next,/ Let the world mind him! • ungrammatical inverted non-aux + S • So, with the throttling hands of death at strife,/ Ground he at grammar;

22. Auxiliary contraction is ’s P S It mine. Contractable: Most finite (past/present) auxiliaries Purpose: to show lack of formality.

23. How casual? • A matter of degree, not all or none. • We can contract some contractable auxiliaries without contracting all of them. • Project: count contracted auxiliaries • as percentage of all contractables. • very good for practicing grammatical analysis! • Contraction is an issue in students’ own writing.

24. Hunt for … • A text where all contractable auxils are contracted • 5: hundred’s |here’s |here’s|here’s • A text where some auxils are contracted and some aren’t. • 1: he can’t | cabbie is | I have |jokeologists have • 4: that are |disk is |that will |you’re |footways will • 6: Milan have |Scolari is |Phil has| Kaka will not | “It’s |Kaka is | he is • A contracted auxiliary with an object • 7: he hadn’t even a bicycle

25. Topicalisation rained S It yesterday ‘topic’

26. Hunt for … • A verb that has two topics • 2: And hand in hand, on the edge of the sand,    They danced by the light of the moon • A topic 29 words long • 3: Among other public buildings in a certain town, which for many reasons it will be prudent to refrain from mentioning, and to which I will assign no fictitious name, there is

27. ‘Negative’ topics and subj-aux inv • So do I. • No way am I going to … • Not only did he … • Only once did he … • At no point did he … formality

28. Hunt for … • so + inverted aux + S • 7: the North Sea's bound to come to an end, sooner or later, and so's the Arab places • negative topic + inverted aux + S • 1: but never oncehave I heard it asked for

29. ‘Place’ topic and subject delay sailed S a neat little yacht it into the harbour

30. Hunt for … • A simple adverb + subject delay • 5: here’sthe platform, here’s the proper place … here’sthe top-peak • A prepositional phrase + subject delay • 3: in this workhousewas born; on a day and date which I need not trouble myself to repeat, inasmuch as it can be of no possible consequence to the reader, in this stage of the business at all events; the item of mortality …

31. Subject delay and formality • Herecomesyour bus. • Thereare my gloves. • In the corner is an old oak tree. • In the corner stands an old oak tree. • From this observation arises another concern. formality

32. Postposing put S O a bag it into the box We a bag of jewels that we had found up the chimney

33. Hunt for … • A postposed O following a preposition phrase • 2: 'Dear pig, are you willing to sell for one shilling / Your ring?' • A postposed O following a simple adverb • 1: you have brought homethe punchline

34. Extraposition from a noun arrived S a letter from the bank

35. Hunt for … • An extraposed preposition phrase • 2: a Piggy-wig stood / With a ring at the end of his nose • An extraposed relative clause that … • 4: A ‘free’ tax disc is issued that will need to be renewed each year.

36. Extraposition with it surprises O S me that he came so late It

37. Hunt for … • Three examples of an extraposed clause after it • 3: which for many reasons it will be prudent to refrain from mentioning … • 3: it remained a matter of considerable doubt whether the child would survive … • 3: it is somewhat more than probable that these memoirs would never have appeared …

38. Why deviate? • Focus on finiteness and truth • subject-auxiliary inversion • Put ‘topic’ early, because it’s already in the hearer’s mind. • topicalisation • Put ‘heavy material’ late, to give the hearer time to process it. • subject delay, postposing, extraposition

39. Thank you • This slideshow is available at: www.phon.ucl.ac.uk/home/dick/talks.htm#alel • For more on grammar in teaching: www.phon.ucl.ac.uk/home/dick/education.htm#strategy