Principles of Effective Writing for Science & Technology

1. Principles of Effective Writing forScience & Technology York University CREATE Program in Vision Science & Applications Boot Camp, July 20, 2012 Dr. KAREN ENGLANDER Department of Languages, Literatures & Linguistics, York University Faculty of Languages, Universidad Autonoma de Baja California

2. Why write? What to write? What’s writing have to do with science and engineering?

3. Different genres have different functions, formats, audiences. Genres evolve to fulfill a purpose within the community of people who use them.

4. The genre—and so the format– differs considerably to serve different situations

5. Different genres are easily identifiable by those who use them.

6. Scientific communication means participating in a conversation It’s not about broadcasting your research. It’s about knowing and acknowledging what came before, and anticipating how your “say” will contribute.

8. Research papers have a shape that expert readers expect. Introduction Method Results Discussion

9. Ideas in Introductions move Introduction Move 1 Establish the research territory Establish the gap Move 2 Occupy the gap Move 3

10. Shape information is important for a broad range of com- puter vision problems. For some detection and recognition tasks, discriminative models that use non-invertible shape codes [2] can be effective. However, many other tasks call for a more complete generative model of shape. Examples include: (1) shape segmentation, recognition, and tracking in cluttered scenes, where shapes must be distinguished not just from each other, but from ‘phantom’ shapes formed by conjunctions of features from multiple objects [6]; (2) modeling of shape articulation, growth, and deformation; and (3) modeling of shape similarity. Our paper concerns the generative modeling of natural 2D shapes in the plane, represented by their 1D boundary. We restrict our attention to simply-connected shapes whose boundaries are smooth, simple, and closed curves. We seek a generative shape model that satisfies a set of properties that seem to us essential: ….

11. Move 1Establish the research territory • By showing that the general research area is important, central, interesting, problematic, or relevant. The increasing interest in … has heightened the need for …. Recently, there has been a growing interest in…. The…has become a favorite topic for analysis. The study of…has become an important aspect of…. The relationship between x and y has been investigated by many researchers over the past 15 years. Many recent studies have focused on…. • By introducing and reviewing items of previous research in the area.

12. Move 2Establish the Niche/Gap • By indicating a gap in the previous research, raising a question about it, or extending previous knowledge in some way. However, it remains unclear whether…. These studies have emphasized x rather than... Although there have been studies of x, few studies of x plus y have been reported. However, little attention; little work; little data… However, few investigations; few researchers ….

13. Move 3Occupy the Niche/ Gap i. By outlining the purpose of the present research. (obligatory) ii. By announcing the principal findings. (depends) iii. By indicating the structure of the paper. (depends) The aim of the present paper is …. In this paper we report the results …. This study was designed to investigate… The aim of this investigation was to... In this paper we will provide…

14. Authors sometimes break genre conventions Highly cited paper, International Journal of Computer Vision

15. Method section demonstrates study was sensibly designed and carefully conducted. Experimental Papers vs Theoretical Papers Overview of the Experiment Population/Sample Location Restrictions/Limiting Conditions Sampling Technique Procedures Materials Variables Statistical Treatment • Articulation of Assumptions • e.g. Journal of Geophysical Research: • Measurements; Data Processing • Alternative: • Sample Collection; Sample Analysis • e.g. Journal of Toxicology • Historical Record • Geological Evidence • Intoxicating Properties

16. Methods differentiate standard vs. specially designed/modified procedures. Method. Since some toxic flagellated vegetative cells in a given population are induced to transform to amoeba shortly after disturbance, … we minimized amoeboid transformation by completing all zooplankton feeding trials…. In all treatments containing P. piscicida, the dinoflagellates were added by slowing pouring to containers…Treatments were randomly distributed daily within four covered containers to reduce potential contamination….2

17. Methods differentiate standard vs. specially designed/modified procedures. Method. Since some toxic flagellated vegetative cells in a given population are induced to transform to amoeba shortly after disturbance, … we minimized amoeboid transformation by completing all zooplankton feeding trials…. In all treatments containing P. piscicida, the dinoflagellateswere added by slowing pouring to containers…Treatments were randomly distributed daily within four covered containers to reduce potential contamination….2

18. DO NOT repeat all the details in words DO NOT attempt to cover all the information

19. Results don’t speak for themselves. Indicate your position As can be seen in the figure, the two curves are very similar. As can be seen in the figure, the two curves are noticeably different.

20. A modelling approach to traffic management and CO exposure during peak hours 1Data obtained in previous studies1,2 using a fixed on-site monitor indicated that travel by car resulted in lower CO exposure than travel on foot. 2 According to Figo et al. (1999), the median exposure of car passengers was 11% lower than for those walking2. 3In our study, modeled emission rates were obtained using the Traffic Emission Model (TEM), a CO-exposure modeling framework developed by Ka3. 4Modelled results were compared with actual roadside CO concentrations measured hourly at a fixed monitor. 5Figure 1 shows the results obtained using TEM. 6As can be seen, during morning peak-time journeys the CO concentrations for car passengers were significantly lower than for pedestrians, which is consistent with results obtained in previous studies.1, 27However, the modeled data were not consistent with these results for afternoon journeys. 8Although the mean CO concentrations modeled by TEM for afternoon journeys on foot were in line with those of Figo et al., a striking difference was noted when each of the three peak hours was considered singly (Fig. 2).

21. Highlighting permeates Results “A striking difference was noted” The mathematical model provides a reasonable fit to the data. …indicating that features other than shape certainly play a role This is a useful property that is not included in [other] schemes. From Figure 1, it is obvious that there is substantial individual variability. Of great interest are… There was clearly no effect of ….

22. Discussions show how you change the knowledge of the field • The area of study is important • We know certain things about it • But, there’s a gap • I am going to fill it in this manner Introduction Discussion • Summarize major findings (revisit previous sections) • Summarize key results • Explain the implications

23. The right degree of convictionis needed Graduate study assures career success. Our experiments demonstrate a sex-related difference in color perception.

24. Rocky slowly got up from the mat, planning his escape. He hesitated a moment and thought. Things were not going well. What bothered him most was being held, especially since the charge against him had been weak. He considered his present situation. The lock that held him was strong but he thought he could break it. He knew, however, that his timing would have to be perfect. Rocky was aware that it was because of his early roughness that he had been penalized so severely – much too severely from his point of view. The situation was becoming frustrating and he was getting angry. He felt he was ready to make his move. He knew that his success or failure would depend on what he did in the next few seconds.

25. Principles

26. Structures Compactly convey technical information in writing. I704, Issac Newton: optics of the eye If the Humours of the Eye by old Age decay, so as by shrinking to make the Cornea and Coat of the Crystalline Humour grow flatter than before, the Light will not be refracted enough, and for want of sufficient Refraction, will not converge to the bottom of the Eye but to some place beyond it, and by consequence paint in the bottom of the Eye a confused Picture, and according to the Indistinctness of the Picture the Object will appear confused. ….For those Convex glasses supply the defect of plumpness in the Eye, and by increasing the Refraction make the Rays converge sooner, so as to convene distinctly at the bottom of the Eye if the glass have a due degree of convexity.

27. Dense nominalizations are used today, too. In the process of spontaneous parametric downconversion, photons from a pump field are converted…. The reverse process, or upconversion of these pairs back to single photons in a second crystal, is also possible. Here, we present experimental measurements of the upconversion rate with a controlled time delay…. (O'Donnell& U'Ren, 2009, p. 603)

28. From “A temporal window…” We employed a…paradigm. …a discrimination paradigm. We employed a paradigm that [requires people to] discriminate things. …a shape discrimination paradigm. …a paradigm that [requires people to] discriminate different shapes. …a repetitive-presentation discrimination paradigm. …a paradigm that [requires people to] discriminate different shapes when they are presented repeatedly.