Observation

1. Observation Scientific observation is made under precisely defined conditions, in a systematic and objective manner, and with careful record keeping.

2. Need to consider�. WHO to observe WHEN to observe HOW to observe HOW to record data

3. WHO to observe? Results are only generalizable to participants, times, settings, and conditions similar to those in the study in which the observations were made. Must have a representative sample.

4. WHEN to observe Time sampling Situation sampling

5. Time sampling Choose various time intervals for observations Random Systematic Or both When is time sampling NOT appropriate?

6. Situation Sampling Observing behavior in as many different locations and under as many different circumstances as possible.

7. HOW to observe Observation without intervention Observation with intervention

8. Observation without intervention Goal is to describe behavior as it normally occurs and to examine relationships among variables. Reactivity Demand characteristics

9. Observation with intervention Most psychological research uses this type of observation. Three types we�ll talk about: Participant observation Structured observation Field experiments

10. Participant Observation Beneficial because it allows access to places/situations that is usually not open to scientific observation. Pretending to be schizophrenic Pretending to be a black man Can also be problematic � why? Disguised vs. Undisguised

11. Structured Observation More control/intervention than naturalistic observation, but less than in an experiment. The participant �sets up� a situation that can be observed.

12. Pros and Cons of Structured Observation +Can observe behavior under conditions that are more natural than in the lab. - Failing to follow the same procedures EACH time can be problematic. - Uncontrolled (or even unknown) variables can interfere.

13. Field Experiments The observer manipulates one or more independent variables. This is the most extreme form of intervention in observational methods.

14. HOW to record data Qualitative Narrative record Field notes Quantitative Check list: yes or no Frequency of occurrence Ratings on a likert scale Electronic recording and tracking

15. Data Data reduction Coding Mean (central tendency) Standard deviation (variability) Frequency counts

16. What about reliability? Interobserver reliability � the degree to which two independent observers agree. How do we get this number? Percentage agreement: (Number of agreements / Number of observations) X 100 Correlate the two observers� ratings

17. What about observer bias? Expectancy effects Ways to control observer bias Keep observes �blind� as to the hypotheses of the experiment Recognize that bias may be present