ORGANIZATION of a CRIME LABORATORY

1. ORGANIZATION of aCRIME LABORATORY

2. Rapid Increase in Crime Labs… • Attributed to an increase in crime rates, primarily drug related crimes. • Drug seizures must be sent to a lab for confirmation by chemical analysis before a judge can rule on a case. • Currently – over 300 public crime labs operating under federal, state, county and municipal governments.

3. 4 major FEDERAL crime labs: • FBI - Federal Bureau of Investigation • Largest crime lab in the world • Capable of investigating a broad range of crimes • DEA - Drug Enforcement Administration • Primary focus: analysis, production, sale, & transportation of illegal drugs • ATF - Alcohol, Tobacco, Firearms & Explosives • Primary focus: analysis of alcoholic beverages, tax law documents, weapons, explosive devices • Gun Control Act of 1968 • Organized Crime Control Act of 1970 • USPS - U.S. Postal Service

4. SERVICES OF A CRIME LAB • Crime labs vary in the services they provide due to… • Differences in local laws • The lab’s capabilities • Budget limitations • Many crime labs were simply created for processing drugs. • Only a few labs offer a multitude of services.

5. “Full Service” Crime LabsLabs that have the following units. • Physical Science: Drugs, glass, paint, explosives, soil, & trace physical evidence. • Biology: DNA, bloodstains, semen, saliva, hair & fiber comparisons, botanical materials (wood/plants). • Firearms: Examines of firearms, discharged bullets, cartridge cases, shotgun shells, ammunition of all types, clothing (for gun residue), tool-mark comparisons. • Document Examination : examines handwritten & typed/printed documents for authenticity (forgery), ink & paper analysis. • Photography: Uses digital imaging, infrared, ultraviolet, & x-ray photography AND courtroom photos.

6. Other ‘Optional’ Services • Toxicology: Body fluids & organs tested for drugs/poisons. • Intoxilyzer – an instrument that detects the level of alcohol consumed by someone. • Latent Fingerprint Unit • Polygraph: lie detection • Voiceprint Analysis: telephone threats & recorded messages • sound spectrograph – an instrument that transforms speech into a visual graphic display called a voiceprint. • Evidence-Collection Unit: they only collect; they do NOT analyze.

8. Functions of a Forensic Scientist

9. Functions of a Forensic Scientist • Applies Science to Law • Analyzes Physical Evidence • Gives Expert Testimony • Trains Law Enforcement • Available 24-7

10. Analysis of Evidence They have to… • RECOGNIZE • IDENTIFY • COLLECT • PRESERVE • EVALUATE • INDIVIDUALIZE physical evidence

11. Analysis of Evidence • DATA is basis of all conclusions • ACCURATE DATA is derived from careful collection of evidence • POOR EVIDENCE COLLECTION or HANDLING can result in wrong conclusions (i.e. – OJ Simpson case) • GI-GO: Garbage in – garbage out • DOCUMENTATION is ESSENTIAL

12. Analysis of Evidence • Use of SCIENTIFICMETHODS • What is EVIDENCE vs. COINCIDENCE? • Give WEIGHT (ranking) to results • Attach a DEGREE of CERTAINTY • Apply results to theories in order to PROVE or DISPROVE • Components must ADD UP to THEORY

13. Analysis of Evidence • It’s ALL about the EVIDENCE! • The training & competence of forensic scientists & the sophistication of their equipment have little or no value if relevantevidence cannot be recognized, collected, & preserved!

14. Physical Evidence

15. Blood, Semen, Saliva Hair Samples from body organs Fingerprints Documents Serial numbers Impressions glass Soil & minerals Fibers Petroleum residues Paint, plastic & rubber Powder residue Firearms & explosives Wood & vegetative fragments Common Examples of Physical Evidence

16. In 1832 police arrested John Bodle for lacing his grandfather's coffee with poison. Chemist James Marsh tested the drink in his laboratory, & confirmed the presence of arsenic by producing a yellow precipitate of arsenic sulfide. But the precipitate was unstable &, by the time of trial, had deteriorated. Without forensic proof, Bodle was acquitted. The Marsh Test

17. Physical Evidence • Forensic Scientists must be aware of the demands & constraints imposed by the judicial system. • Evidence must satisfy the criteria of admissibility that have been established by the courts. • New scientific techniques to analyze evidence are constantly developed & challenged by the courts until proven ‘acceptable’ by the scientific community.

18. Physical Evidence • Frye Standard(Frye v. U.S. 1923) - for the results of a scientific technique to be admissible, the technique must be established & acceptance within the scientific community. • Federal Rules of Evidence (FRE) - any evidence is admissible so long as it assists the jury & is deemed relevant by the judge. • Coppolino Standard(Coppolino v. State 1968) - the court allows new, sometimes controversial scientific tests or techniques as evidence IF an adequate foundation can be laid even if the profession as a whole isn't familiar with it. • Daubert Standard(Daubert v. Merrell Dow Pharmaceuticals 1993). This requires special pre-trial hearings for scientific evidence. This is very strict & requires knowledge of a test’s error rates, as well as validity & reliability data. (no junk science!)

19. POLICE LINE DO NOT CROSS POLICE LINE DO NOT CROSS

20. Carmichael v. Kumho Tire Co. • The Carmichaels had a fatal accident when their minivan’s rear tire blew out. One of the passengers died & others were severely injured. • They sued the tire manufacturer, claiming the tire was defective & it caused the accident. Their case relied largely on testimony from a tire expert. • The judge referred to the Daubert standard & found the tire expert's methods not to be ‘scientifically’ valid, and hence excluded his testimony. • They lost but appealed & eventually won!

21. Expert Testimony

22. Expert Testimony • Forensic Scientists are often called upon to act as Expert Witnesses. • Expert Witness – someone that possesses a particular skill or knowledge on a topic that will aid the court in determining the truth.

23. Expert Testimony • The credentials that makes someone an ‘expert’ is often ambiguous & highly subjective. • Expert witnesses must be: • Advocates of Truth • Objective (no personal opinions) • Experienced (# of years in their field) • Trained (special courses) • Educated (degrees in their field)

24. Expert Testimony • An expert witness is allowed to be challenged by the opposing attorney. • They cross-examine the expert to find any weaknesses in background & knowledge. • Even if someone is considered an ‘expert’, a judge or jury might not consider their testimony that important anyway.

25. Other Forensic Science Services

26. Forensic Pathology • Investigation of sudden, unnatural, unexplained or violent deaths • Autopsy medical dissection to establish the cause of death (usually performed by ME or coroner) • Death can be classified as: • natural, • homicide, • suicide, • accident • or undetermined

27. Time Since Death (TSD) determined by • rigormortis • Muscles relax then shorten & become stiff • 1st 24 – 36 hours after death • livor mortis • Heart stops pumping & blood settles in areas of the body closest to the ground. • Skin appears dark blue or purple • Up to 12 hrs after death • algor mortis • Body loses heat until it reaches room temperature • Influenced by location, victim’ size, clothing, & weather • General Rule: 1 hr after death, heat is lost at 1-1.5 degrees per hour

28. Forensic Medicine • Investigation of illnesses that cannot be determined. • Takes patients symptoms & uses facts to analyze & interpret. • Usually a last result. Doctors cannot find cause of ailment, so this is employed. • HOUSE, M.D.

29. Forensic Anthropology • Examine & Identify Skeletal remains • Bones can reveal • species, • sex, • approximate age, • race • skeletal injury • Facial reconstruction can help identify “John or Jane Doe”

30. Forensic Entomology • Study of insects to estimate the time of death • Insects lay eggs that hatch into larvae • Stages of development tell how long ago the eggs were laid • Temperature & other weather conditions affect the development

32. Forensic Psychiatry • Study of human behavior • Determine if persons are competent to stand trial • Develop a suspect’s behavioral profile based on previous patterns of other criminals

33. Forensic Odontology • Study of teeth characteristics, alignment and the overall structure of the mouth to identify a person • Bitemark analysis compares marks on a victim to the teeth of the suspect

35. Forensic Engineering • Investigation of… • structural failures, • accident reconstruction • causes of fires • Attempts to determine if human intervention caused the structural failure • Utilizes computer models & architectural models to help courts visualize crime scenes