Psychology Terms – Unit 2

1. Psychology Terms – Unit 2

2. Chapter 3 – Infancy and Childhood

3. developmental psychology Developmental psychology refers to the study of the changes that occur as an individual matures and ages.

4. grasping and rooting reflex With newborns, babies are born with certain instinctual reflexes. Grasping reflex refers to an infant’s tendency to grab hold once touched on the hand. Rooting reflex will respond to any touch with the mouth, a reflex that allows for breast feeding but also explains babies’ inclination towards putting things in their mouths.

5. maturation Maturation refers to the internal growth of a child. While skills are learned, typically, in a specific order, when they happen and at what age depends on the child. Yet, ages can be approximated. 2 months – child can lift their head 45 degrees 2.8 months – child can role over 4 months – child can sit up with support 5.5 months – child can sit up without support 7.6 months – child can pull self into standing position 9.2 months – child can walk, holding onto furniture 11.5 months – child can stand alone 12.1 months – child can walk

6. perceptual development Perceptual development refers to the extend to which a baby can perceive things around them and not around them. It can also refer to the ability of an infant to understand depth perception.

7. language acquisition The development of language is a heavily debated concept of human development. While some say that language acquisition is a question of reinforced behavior, others have speculated that the picking up of language is something that has a critical period that outside of, language knowledge is difficult to master. According to psychologists, the acquisition of language follows a set pattern: the child learns to make signs the child learns the meaning of signs the child learns grammar

8. telegraphic speech Telegraphic speech is child speech where words are left out but the general meaning is clear. Examples could include a baby saying, “Where my apple?” or “Daddy fall down.”

9. schema, assimilation, accommodation A schema is the plan in which a person knows the world. It refers to how we go about understanding new things. Assimilation is the process of fitting new ideas and experiences into one’s existing schema. Accommodation is the process of adjusting one’s schema to take into account events and experiences that have occurred.

10. object permanence Object permanence refers to the child’s ability to understand that what is not seen or cannot be touched any longer still exists. The fact that a child understands that a toy is not in the crib still exists.

11. representation thought Representation thought is the ability of a child to picture something in their mind.

12. conservation Conservation, as suggested by Jean Piaget, is the principle that a given quantity does not change when its appearances change. A child can be given two glasses of water, filled to equal amounts and the child will say the amount of water is the same. If a researcher can pour on glass of water into a tall, thin glass, the child will still declare the amount of water is the same.

13. egocentric Egocentric, as put forth by Jean Piaget, refers to a young child’s inability to see things from another’s point of view or perspective.

14. Piaget’s Stages of Cognitive Development Sensorimotor (birth to 1.5 years) – simple motor responses to stimuli; no object permanence Preoperational (1.5 to 7 years) – egocentric; lacks concepts of conservation; uses symbols to discuss simple problems Concrete operations (7 to 11 years) – beginning of understanding about conservation; trouble with abstract ideas; classification improves as does conservation Formal operations (11 years onward) – understands abstract ideas and hypothetical situations; logical and deductive reasoning

15. imprinting and critical period Imprinting refers to the inherited responses to new stimuli. The critical period is a particular point of time when certain skills and abilities are easily learned.

16. authoritarian families An authoritarian family is one that attempts to control and shape the lives on their children. Additionally, they oversee and enforce a strict code of behavior that each child must follow. A child growing up in this type of family can be unprepared to make decisions as an adult and experience problems breaking away from the nuclear family.

17. democratic/authoritative families A democratic family is one where children are allowed to be a part of the decision making process with situations that relate to them. Children are encouraged to make their own decisions though parents have final say in the event the decision in question is wrong or problematic. Children from these families can show an early ability to be independent and think through problems, making their adjustment into adulthood easier.

18. permissive/laissez-faire families In a permissive family, children have very little structure or ground rules that pertain to them and often have the final say. While parents might try to influence the decisions the children make, ultimately, they refrain or are unable to enforce a particular decision. Children from this kind of family may experience difficult problems with the rules, regulations and expectations expected from others at work or at school.

19. socialization Socialization is the process by which people learn the rules of behavior within a particular group or, in general, the culture they inhabit.

20. identification Identification refers to the process by which a child adopts the values and principles of the same-sex parent. These values can include a father’s influence on the son who believes that a “man” keeps his word or the mother’s influence on her daughter about the expected behavior of a “proper lady.”

21. sublimation Sublimation refers to the process of redirecting sexual impulses and energies towards learning tasks. According to Freud, this occurs during the latency stage of psychosexual development where sexual feelings are pushed aside in lieu of social impulses. However, modern-day psychologists feel that sexual feelings are still presence during childhood.

22. Erikson’s Theory of Psychosocial Development Erik Erikson hypothesized that sexual desires and needs were not the only factor in the development of people but rather social concerns and needs are also prevalent. Indeed, Erikson felt that stages are often defined by the social needs of the child.

23. role taking Role taking is a component of a child’s play where they learn, by taking on various adult roles, the perspective of others.

24. Lawrence Kohlberg’s Stages of Moral Development According to Kohlberg, a child develops a sense of morals as part of a six-stage process: 1 – children are entirely egocentric with no concept of right and wrong, they simply attempt to avoid punishment 2 – children have a good idea about receiving rewards and avoiding punishment 3 – children begin to process what others expect and attempt to fit that model 4 – the child focuses on law and order, black or white thinking 5 – the child begins to consider the appropriateness (fairness or justness) of a law 6 – the child begins to accepted ethical principles (i.e. Golden Rule)

25. Chapter 4 – Adolescence

26. initiation rites Initiation rites are the rituals or ceremonies that one must go through to be allowed into a new status or a new group. University Greek organizations have a process they call rushing. During this time period, the pledges learn the ins and outs of the organization, what is acceptable and what is not and proving oneself worthy to be a part of that group.

27. puberty Puberty refers to sexual maturation – the end of childhood and when reproduction is possible.

28. menarche and spermarche Menarche refers to a girl’s first menstrual period. Spermarche refers to the period of time where males achieve their first ejaculation. Both of these periods refer to the puberty process, when boys and girls begin reaching the point of sexual maturation. This also suggests the beginnings of physical maturation. While boys tend to start as much as two years later then girls, their maturation period lasts considerably longer (roughly three years).

29. asynchrony Asynchrony refers to the condition of uneven maturation of body parts. Young boys are often teased for their large ears but as physical development continues, the ears normally become more proportional to the rest of the head.

30. rationalization Rationalization is the process in which a person will explain a particularly an unpleasant or traumatic situation in such a way as it protects their self-esteem.

31. Elkind’s Adolescent Developmental Problems David Elkind described problems in how teens develop as a result of immaturity and abstract thought processes: Finding fault with authority figures Argumentativeness Indecisiveness Apparent hypocrisy Self-consciousness Invulnerability

32. identity crisis Identity crisis is a period of conflict when teens (or anyone for that matter) constantly worry about who they are. A teen who finds out in high school they were adopted could trigger a long period of self-reflection and concern about who or what they are.

33. social learning theory Social learning theory, put forth by Albert Bandura, suggests to understand teens and their development, one must focus on the amount and type of interaction they go through. Margaret Mead furthered Bandura’s ideas by stressing the importance of social environments as an influence on adolescent identity formation.

34. clique A clique is a small, exclusive group within a larger group. While cliques can be helpful as a source of friendship and camaraderie, its negative consequences are based on perception. One within a clique does not wish to associate with those outside the clique. In short, cliques can help define what an adolescent is and is not.

35. conformity Conformity is adjusting one's behavior or thinking to coincide with a group standard. Adolescents tend to conform to the demands of their social group or clique. It is a method of getting along. This can be detrimental if conformity drowns out the individuals own values.

36. anorexia nervosa Anorexia nervosa (or simply anorexia) is an eating disorder in which a person (more prominent with adolescent females) diets and becomes significantly (15% or more) underweight, yet, still feeling fat, continues to starve. Various social and group pressures can cause an adolescent to feel the need to starve themself.

37. bulimia nervosa Bulimia nervosa (or simply bulimia) is an eating disorder characterized by episodes of overeating, usually of high-calorie foods, followed by vomiting, laxative use, fasting, or excessive exercise.

38. gender identity, role, stereotype Gender identity refers to one’s sense of being male or female. Gender role is the set of expectations for men and women in a particular society. Gender stereotype is an oversimplified or distorted generalization with regards to the characteristics of men and women.

39. androgynous One who is androgynous combines the characteristics normally seen separately in men and women.

40. gender schema Gender schema is the set of behaviors based on how a male or female should think and behave.

41. origins of gender difference There are many different theories as to the origins of gender difference. Biology theory – emphasizes the role of the anatomy, hormones and brain organization Psychoanalytical theory – gender identification based on relationship with same-sex parent Social Learning theory – emphasizes role of social and cognitive processes Cognitive-Developmental theory – gender roles determined by interaction with the environment

42. Chapter 5 – Adulthood and Old Age

43. menopause Menopause is the biological period when women’s production of sex hormones is greatly reduced. Additionally, women during menopause stop ovulating and menstruating. Because of this, women in and after menopause cannot conceive children. Women experience menopause quite differently from one another though the cultural stereotype is often exaggerated. Some women experience little to no difficulty while other women can show mood swings, increased irritability and depression.

44. Levinson’s Theory of Male Development Daniel Levinson put forth a model for male development. There are striking similarities between Levinson’s theory and that of Erikson. 0-17 – childhood 17-22 – early adult transition 22-40 – early adult era (marked by entering into the adult world, transitioning at 30 and settling down) 40-45 – middle adult transition 45-60 – middle adult era (marked by entering adulthood, transitioning at 50 and the culmination of middle adulthood 60-65 – late adult transition 65-onward – late adult era

45. generativity A part of Levinson’s theory of male development, generativity is the desire, during middle age, to use one’s knowledge and experience to advise the younger generation. Unfortunately, this is typically met with ambivalence.

46. stagnation A part of Levinson’s theory of male development, stagnation refers to a stopping in the development and a desire to return to an earlier period (to recapture or relive the past). Often, people discuss a midlife crisis. Men, faced with the prospect of getting old and moving away from how they were defined as younger men, attempt to recapture an element of their youth. Stereotypically, this might mean seeking out a companion or embracing a symbol of youth and vitality – a Corvette for example.

47. decremental model of agingageism The decremental model of aging refers to the idea that physical and mental deterioration is typical and expected as we age. While certainly some degradation, particularly physical, is common, this idea of older people is a cause of ageism – the discrimination of the elderly.

48. senile dementia Senile dementia refers to the decrease in mental abilities experienced by some people as they enter late adulthood.

49. Alzheimer’s disease Alzheimer’s disease is a degenerative disorder that destroys a person’s ability to think, remember, relate to others and care for themselves. This can particularly painful for the family members as they are forgotten. For the one with the disorder, it can be very distressful and frightening as they confront people they do not know and situations they no longer understand.

50. thanatology Thanatology is the study of dying and death. Elisabeth Kübler-Ross pioneered this study and identified five stages of psychological adjustment. 1. Denial 2. Anger 3. Bargaining 4. Depression 5. Acceptance