Research Methods for Administration MPAC 7136

1. Research Methods for AdministrationMPAC 7136 Dr. Butch Beach Command College bbeach@columbusstate.edu 706.568.1154

2. Criteria for Judging A Research Project • How close did the researcher follow the APA style guide and the instructor’s direction in formatting the manuscript? • How closely related to the research project is the literature review?

3. Criteria for Judging A Research Project • Was the finished project submitted to the instructor according to the schedule? • Is the problem statement easily understood? Is the purpose of the study clearly stated? Is there a reason stated regarding the importance of the study? Are the study objectives clearly stated? • Are the hypotheses clearly stated? Are the hypotheses testable?

4. Criteria for Judging A Research Project • Are the dependent and independent variables clearly defined? • Is the methodology clearly described? • Was the sample selected in a way that it is representative of the population? • Are the results related to the hypotheses? Does the student accept or reject the hypotheses based on summative scaling.

5. Criteria for Judging A Research Project • Is the discussion of the results detailed and complete? • Is the list of references current and correctly formatted? • Is the research report clearly written and understandable? • Is the writing grammatically correct?

6. Research Design • Experimental Research • Components • Random assignment • Control Group • Experimental Group • Treatment Difference in random group is measured and effects described.

7. Research Design • Non-experimental Research • Surveys • Interviews • Observations • Participants are known as respondents Attitudes, opinions, and feelings are described and assigned numerical values for quantitative analysis or completely described in a qualitative study.

8. Researchese; the Language of Research • Why be concerned with definitions? • To avoid “Research Shock!!!”

9. Researchese; the Language of Research • Operationalization--- defines concepts by describing how they will be measured. • Operational definitions—is another way of referring to this process Example: “I will measure it by _________________”

10. Researchese; the Language of Research Variables • Dependent Variable---A variable that is measured to see whether the treatment or manipulation of the independent variable had any effect. • Some other terms used to describe the dependent variable include, Outcome variable, Results variable, and Criterion variable.

11. Researchese; the Language of Research • Independent Variable---A variable that is manipulated to examine the impact on a dependent variable. • Other terms that are occasionally used to describe the independent variable are Treatment, Factor, or Predictor variables. • Please note that the independent variable in one study may easily become the dependent variable in another.

12. Researchese; the Language of Research • Control Variable---A variable that is related to the dependent variable, the influence of which needs to be removed. • Another term for the control variable is “restricting” variable.

13. Researchese; the Language of Research • Extraneous Variable---A variable that is related to the dependent variable or independent variable that is not part of the experiment. • Another term for extraneous variable is “threatening “ variable.

14. Researchese; the Language of Research • Moderator Variable---A variable that is related to the dependent variable or independent variable and has an impact on the independent variable. • This variable is, on occasion, identified as a “interacting” variable.

15. Researchese; the Language of Research Quantitative versus Qualitative • Quantitative Research---concepts are assigned a numerical value; • Qualitative Research---concepts are viewed as sensitizing ideas or terms that enhance our understanding of the issue in question.

16. Researchese; the Language of Research • Research question (theory)—usually a broad question regarding the relationship between variables. • Most often used in Qualitative Research or Grounded Theory inquiries

17. Researchese; the Language of Research • Hypothesis—is a specific statement regarding the relationship between two variables. • Research Hypothesis—states an expected relationship between variables in positive terms. • For example—poverty causes crime

18. Researchese; the Language of Research • The null hypothesis is a hypothesis of no difference and is the one actually tested statistically.

19. Researchese; the Language of Research • Example of the null hypothesis; There is no significant difference between the effects of verbal cues, rewards, and no reinforcement in terms of social interaction for children with autism and their siblings.

20. Researchese; the Language of Research Two Types of Hypotheses • Directional • Non-directional

21. Researchese; the Language of Research • Directional Hypothesis is the first alternative to the null hypothesis. The investigator makes a prediction about the expected outcome, basing the prediction on prior literature and studies that suggest a potential outcome.

22. Researchese; the Language of Research • For example, the researcher may predict: • Hypothesis 1— Scores will be higher for Group A than Group B or; • Hypothesis 2— Group A will change more than Group B.

23. Researchese; the Language of Research • Non-directional hypotheses is the second alternative; a prediction is made, but the exact form of differences (e.g. higher or lower, more or less) is not specified because the researcher does not know what can be predicted from past literature.

24. Researchese; the Language of Research • For example---the investigator may simply state: There is a difference in the scores of Group A and the scores of Group B

25. Characteristics of a Well Written Research Hypothesis • Stated in declarative form, • Posit a relationship between variables, • Reflect a theory or a body of literature that they are based on, • Should be brief and to the point, • Be Testable.

26. Researchese; the Language of Research Likert Scales • Likert scales are used to measure attitudes and feelings that a person may have about a subject, situation, or event. • Questionnaires prepared by students will be structured to require Likert responses. • A Likert questionnaire doesn’t necessarily ask questions but makes statements that the respondent is asked to respond by selecting one of five choices that best expresses their feelings about the statement.

27. Researchese; the Language of Research • Always start with your weakest response with a value of one and move to the right to your strongest response with a value of five.

28. Researchese; the Language of Research Example: Most people in Columbus, GA support the Iraq war. 1 2 3 4 5 Strongly Disagree Undecided Agree Strongly Disagree Agree

29. Creating the Questionnaire Creating Survey Questions • Don’t use vague or technical language, • Requests should be clear and direct, • Don’t make the statement too long, • Avoid asking hypothetical or what-if questions, • Avoid asking about intentions to act, • Never speak in double negative.

30. Responses to Survey Questions Two Basic Types of Responses • Closed-end responses---These responses are controlled and may range from a simple yes or no to a more elaborate scale that identifies response categories that in turn measure degrees of difference in attitudes, opinions, feelings, or whatever is being measured.

31. Responses to Survey Questions • In order for closed-ended responses to be most effective the question should require a response that is: • Exhaustive, • Mutually exclusive, • Placed on a defined scale.

32. Responses to Survey Questions • Open-ended responses---most often used in qualitative research. This type of question is good for gathering information about sensitive or embarrassing issues, as well as, more detailed description of experiences.

33. Sample Statements/Questions • Refer to page # 18 of the student handout

34. Group Exercise • Page 19 of the Student Handout. • Write two (2) hypotheses • Write three (3) survey questions

35. Sampling Sample versus Population

36. Sampling • Probability Sampling • Random selection • Simple random sampling • Stratified sampling • Systematic sampling • Sample size

37. Sampling • Non-probability Sampling • Sample not randomly drawn • Does not allow conclusions or predictions to be made about the population based on the sample.

38. Distributing the Survey • Visual Appeal • Cover Letter • Mailing the Survey/Internet Surveys • Posting the survey returns (coding) • Survey follow-up • Response error

39. Data Defined Factual information (measurements and statistics) used as a basis for reasoning, discussion or calculation

40. Data Analysis and Statistics • The value “Measures of Central Tendency “is identifying a single number to allow comparison among the individual values. • Three “Measures of Central Tendency” • Mean • Median • Mode

41. Data Analysis and Statistics

42. Defining and Determining the Mean

43. Data Analysis and Statistics Rank Order of Data Monday 4 Tuesday 5 Wednesday 8 Thursday 6 Friday 8 Saturday 18 Formula

44. Data Analysis and Statistics Determining the Median value: • Arrange the individual values in rank or of increasing size. • When the number of individual values is odd; the Median is the middle value. • When the number of individual values is even; then the average of the two middle values becomes the Median.

45. Data Analysis and Statistics Rank Order of Data The individual data, after being arranged in order of increasing value is an odd number, thus the middle number is the Median. Monday 4 Tuesday 5 Thursday 6 Wednesday 8 Friday8 Formula Median = 6

46. Data Analysis and Statistics Rank Order of Data The number of values is even; average the two middle values 8 + 6 = 14 14 / 2 = 7 Median = 7 Monday 4 Tuesday 5 Thursday 6 Wednesday 8 Friday 8 Saturday 18 Formula

47. Data Analysis and Statistics Rank Order of Data The Mode is the value that occurs most often in a set of values Monday 4 Tuesday 5 Wednesday 8 Thursday 6 Friday 8 Saturday 18 Formula Mode = 8

48. Data Analysis and Statistics Rank Order of Data The Rangeis the difference between the lowest and highest values. Monday 4 Tuesday 5 Wednesday 8 Thursday 6 Friday 8 Formula 8 – 4 = 4 Range = 4

49. Group Exercise 2 • Page 21 of the Student Handout • Compute the Mean, Median, and Mode of the data set given. • Find the Range of the data set.

50. Data Analysis and Statistics Summative Scaling Summative scaling is used to place the mean of the responses to a given survey item on the Likert scale to assist in determining the overall attitude regarding the item surveyed.