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Interest Aggregation and Political Parties. Comparative Politics Chapter 5. Interest aggregation – the activity where the political demands of people and groups are combined into policy programs. Political skills and resources are used to accomplish this: Votes Campaign funds
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Interest Aggregation and Political Parties Comparative Politics Chapter 5
Interest aggregation – the activity where the political demands of people and groups are combined into policy programs. Political skills and resources are used to accomplish this: • Votes • Campaign funds • Political offices • Media access • Armed force
Personal Interest Aggregation • Patron-client networks – do something nice for your ‘clients’ (supporters) and they will take care of you (keep you in office) • Feudalism – Lord and the serfs • Boss Tweed – NY political machine • Richard Daley, Sr. – Chicago political machine • President of U.S. – Cabinet, Executive Office, Joint Chiefs of Staff, etc.
Problem with this is that it usually means the political system it’s in is static – hard to change • U.S. – corrupt politics • Asia – family oriented • Middle East – Tribal/religious orientation • Europe – ethnically oriented (especially eastern Europe)
Institutional Interest • As societies have modernized, the patron-client system has evolved into a larger network • Patron-client is the nucleus and this small network spreads out to connect with larger, more powerful/influential networks • This larger connection goes back to the Association Groups from the previous chapter. • The bureaucracy negotiates with interest groups to get policy made and implemented
Competitive Party Systems and Interest Aggregation • Political parties – groups or organizations that seek to place candidates in office under their label. • In the competitive system, political parties tend to try to gain electoral support • In other words, the political parties will try to win the support of the various “social” subgroups in order to get their candidate in office
Elections • One of the few ways diverse groups of people can express their varying interests equally and comprehensively • Parties generally keep their promises once they are elected • Liberals tend to increase government involvement in daily lives • Conservatives tend to slow down, or decrease the government involvement in daily lives
Radical changes that are promised by a party before it comes into power is sometimes not possible as quickly and easily as they promised once they achieve the power. • Even though voters may have supported the concept of change, they may not have realized the consequences involved in such change, thus slowing down the implementation • Also, the parties who are not currently ‘in power’ also still have a say in the policy making process and may still impede the progress/change of the party in power
Elections don’t always provide interest aggregation, sometimes, it’s just a social thing • Communist countries only allowing one candidate on the ballot, but making everyone vote
Electoral Systems determine • Who can vote • How they vote • How the votes are counted • Single-member District • Plurality – you don’t need a majority (51%) to win, you just need the most votes • Common in the U.S. in many local elections • Not valid in national and some state level postitions
Majority Runoff/Double Ballot • 1st voting narrows down the candidates • 2nd voting gets a winner with a majority • Exceptions can occur if a candidate gets the required majority (51%) in the 1st voting • Proportional Representation • The country is divided into large districts and each district gets to elect a lot of representatives (sometimes 20-30)
The people vote for their favorite candidates • The parties whose candidates receive a minimum percentage of votes get to send their winners to the legislature. If a party doesn’t get the minimum, then they may have some aspects of their people unrepresented • Primary Elections • Parties offer their top candidates and let the voters choose who will run for office against the candidates from the other parties
Closed-list proportional representation • Elected officials choose from their top and the voters have no say about who their candidates might be • Open-list • Voters do get to make choices of their favorites from a list of candidates. Those with the most votes may get to run
Patterns of Electoral Competition • Duverger’s Law – there is a systemiatic relationship between electoral systems and party systems • Plurality single-member districts tend to create two-party systems • Proportional representation generates multi-party systems • How does this happen? • Mechanical effect – the way that different electoral systems convert votes into seats • Psychological effect voters and candidates anticipate the mechanical effect • Voters may not throw support behind candidates they feel are hopeless • Voting for the next best option or the one that will cause the ‘least damage’ is called strategic voting
Down’s Median Voter Result • Political parties will try to modify their stand on various issues to win the support of the median voter • Two-party systems have a convergence to the center to try to win these median voters • In the U.S. there are Republicans who flirt with the left and Democrats who flirt with the right.
Competitive Parties in Government • It helps get policies passed if a party wins the majority in the legislative and has control of the executive. • This works better in single party districts • In pluralities, a party may win control without the majority of the support because of how the seats are distributed to the winner. • Great Britain under Margaret Thatcher and Tony Blair had less than 50% of the popular vote but them and their party got control. • Sometimes, parties will combine to gain control • The recent elections in Britain that brought David Cameron in as Prime Minister
Aggregation of Interests when coalitions form has costs and benefits • The elite determine gov’t policy, and the people feel left out • Voters are often discourage by this because they feel their vote doesn’t count • When there is a coalition, sometimes the interests of a minority party can be used in negotiations, getting them a policy they may want but might not have gotten had a party gained a clear majority
Cooperation and Conflict in Competitive Party Systems • Majoritarian two-party systems • Dominated by two parties (U.S.) • Have two dominant parties and election laws usually create legislative majorities for one of them (Britain) • Majority coalition systems • Parties form preelectoral coalitions so that voters know which parties will attempt to work together for form the policies (Germany & France) • Multiparty systems • Election laws can party systems that virtually ensure that no single party wins a legislative majority and no traditional of preelection coalitions
Party antagonism/polarization • Consensual party system • The parties commanding most of the legislative seats are not to far apart on policies and have a reasonable amount of trust in each other and in the political system • Conflictual party system • The legislature is dominated by parties that are far apart on issues or are antagonistic toward each other and the political system • Consociational/Accomodative system • Party systems in which political leaders are able to bridge the intense differences between antagonistic voters through power-sharing, broad coalitions, and decentralization of sensitive decisions to the separate social groups (Christians and Muslims in Lebanon)
Authoritarian Party Systems • Aggregation takes place • Within the party • In interactions with • Business groups • Unions • Landowners • Institutional groups in the bureaucracy • Military • Elections are sham to make people think they are included
Exclusive Governing Parties • Totalitarian • One party • Top-down control of society • No opposition parties or interest groups • Legitimacy is provided by clear ideology • Failed Totalitarian governments • USSR • Eastern Europe • Working totalitarian governments • North Korea • Cuba
China – mixed and confusing • Government no longer controls the economy • Government still prohibits mass organization against it’s legitimacy • Demise of totalitarianism • Greed for power distorts original ideology • Limited government ability to control society • Loss of confidence in Communism
Inclusive Governing Parties • Ethnic and tribal authoritarian • Usually succeed because they are inclusive • Recognize autonomy of • Social • Cultural • Economic groups • Bargain with these groups instead of controlling and remaking them • Examples: • Kenya • Tanzania
Authoritarian Corporatist Systems • Allow formation of interest groups • Groups bargain with each other • Groups bargain with the government • Do not allow political resources directly to the people • They sometimes allow opposition parties if they are no real threat to the control • Electoral Authoritarianism • Façade of democracy that doesn’t really challenge the gov’t • Some political opposition • Independent media • Social Organizations • Example: Mexican PRI
These governments often are born in the fight against colonialism and begin to dissipate after the leaders die or retire • Memories of struggle for independence fade • Ideology weakens • Worldwide spread of democracy causes people to question the legitimacy of a single party.
Military & Interest Aggregation • Military Government • When civilian governments cannot control society, the military often gets control by default • Military has a monopoly on coercive actions to maintain control of society • After the military takes over • May support a tyrant • May try to use their power to further controlling party ideology
When the military has taken over they sometimes try to set up a bureaucratic version of authoritarian corporatism • Link organized groups with them (the military as the final say in arbitration) • Major limitations of military interest aggregation • Their internal structure is not designed for interest aggregation • They are not set up for • Aggregation of internal differences • Building compromises • Mobilizing popular support • Communications with social groups outside of the military • Military control is often linked with other institutions and may withdraw from control once another, more stable government is established
1980s we saw the trend toward democracy in Eastern Europe • 1990s African nations began to move toward democracy • After 2005-2006, we have seen a move toward democracy in the Middle East • Algeria • Tunisia • Egypt
Significance of Interest Aggregation • Successful public policy depends on effective interest aggregation • Narrow policy options so citizen demands are converted into a few policy alternatives • May eliminate some policies in the process • Competitive Party Systems narrow down and combine policy preferences by through elections • Voters support the party that has their preferences • Unpopular preferences are then eliminated by the majority
Noncompetitive Party Systems, military gov’ts and monarchies aggregation can determine policy • Authoritarian and military governments may just decide the program • Legislative assemblies, military councils or party politburos may have to negotiate policies • How well a government aggregates is the final determining factor in it’s adaptability and stability