Health/Disease

1. Lifestyles and Behaviors • Diet • Exercise/activity levels • Health/related behaviors • Smoking • Tobacco use • Alcohol use • Etc. • Emotion/stress/coping Culture Health/Disease Attitudes and Beliefs Definitions of health Conceptions of the body Attributions about disease causality Locus of control Social networks and support Genetics Individual history Ancestry Health Care Systems Quality of care Systems/organizations Insurance Etc. Environment Temperature Climate Sanitation Etc. Model of Cultural Influences on Health and Disease

2. Culture and Emotional Expressions

3. Outline • The Evolution of Human Emotion • Universality in Emotion- The Basic Emotions Perspective • Cultural Differences in Emotion • Conclusion

4. THE EVOLUTION OF HUMAN EMOTION

5. What is Emotion? • Emotion isatransient, neurophysiological response to a stimulus that excites a coordinated system of components; informs us about relationship to a stimulus, and also prepares us to response to it

6. AntecedentStimulus Emotion Expressive Behavior Face Voice Gestures Etc. Subjective Experience Feelings Sensations Etc. Physiological Reactions Heart beating Breathing Sweating Etc. Cognitions Thoughts Attributions Etc. Motor Behavior Running Hitting Freezing Etc. Figure 8.1 A General Model of Emotional Stimulation and Reaction

7. General Comments on Emotions • Emotions are functional • Help us solve complex social coordination problems • Expressing emotion is a universal aspect of human functioning • Emotions have evolved to be complex and highly differentiated • Language allows humans to make fine distinctions among emotions • Humans have both self-conscious emotions and moral emotions

8. Basic Emotions: Universal? • We share a common base of emotional expressions with our nonhuman primate relatives • Basic emotions • Expressed universally in human faces • Brought on by same types of underlying psychological elicitors • Associated with unique physiological signatures in central and autonomic nervous systems • Based in evolutionary theory • Anger, disgust, fear, enjoyment, sadness, and surprise

9. The Original Universality Studies • Darwin (1872) • Emotions are biologically based and evolutionarily adaptive • All humans express emotions in faces in the same way • Facial expressions of emotion have communicative and adaptive value

10. The Original Universality Studies • Paul Ekman, Wallace Friesen, and Carroll Izard conducted several universality studies which provided the first methodologically sound evidence for Darwin’s arguments on emotion. • Universality Studies: Four studies that found evidence for universality of emotional expressions

11. The Original Universality Studies • Study 1: Judgments of facial expressions by literate cultures (Ekman, Friesen, & Tomkins, 1969) • Observers from US, Argentina, Brazil, Chile, and Japan labeled expressions in photographs. • Results: Found high agreement for anger, disgust, fear, happiness, sadness, and surprise • Problem: All countries were literate and industrialized; problem of shared visual input

12. The Original Universality Studies • Study 2: Judgments of facial expressions by preliterate cultures (Ekman, Sorenson, & Friesen, 1969) • Observers from New Guinea were asked to select a story that best describes expressions in photographs. • Results: Found high agreement for anger, disgust, fear, happiness, sadness, and surprise

13. The Original Universality Studies • Study 3: Judgments of facial expressions posed by members of preliterate cultures (Ekman, Sorenson, & Friesen, 1969) • Americans were asked to label expressions in photographs of New Guineans. • Results: Found high agreement for anger, disgust, fear, happiness, sadness, and surprise

14. The Original Universality Studies • Study 4: Spontaneous facial expressions of emotion (Ekman, 1972; Friesen, 1972) • American and Japanese students’ facial expressions were recorded while they were watching stressful film. • Results: Americans and Japanese showed same facial expressions at same points in time

15. The Original Universality Studies • These studies provided initial support for universality of anger, disgust, fear, happiness, sadness, and surprise.

16. Universality in Emotion Antecedents • Emotion antecedents: events or situations that trigger an emotion • Many studies support the universality of emotion antecedents (e.g., Scherer, 1997). • Same types of antecedents trigger the same emotions across cultures. • And there is similarity in relative frequency with which each antecedents elicit emotions.

17. Universality in Emotion Appraisal Processes • Emotion Appraisal: Process by which people evaluate events, situations that trigger expressions of emotions. • There is a high degree of cross-cultural similarity in how emotion is processed. • Basic emotions are appraised in the same way across cultures.

18. Universality in Emotion Appraisal Processes Table 8.1 Underlying Psychological Themes that Elicit Emotions

19. Universality in Expressive Behavior • Since Ekman’s initial study published in 1972, over 25 published studies demonstrate that when emotion is aroused and there is no reason to modify the expression, universal facial expressions occur. • This is true for a large number of countries • For example, judo athletes in 35 countries during Athens Olympics confirmed this.

20. Universality in Expressive Behavior • Evidence for universality can also be found in the developmental literature. • Newborns smile, cry and show distaste; other negative emotions expressed via undifferentiated negative expressions • By age two, express anger and sadness • By preschool, express all basic emotions

21. Universality in Expressive Behavior • Studies of congenitally blind individuals further bolster universality contention. • They show the same spontaneous and posed emotional expressions as sighted individuals • This suggests that facial expression of emotions are genetically encoded, not socially learned • Studies of nonhuman primates • These studies all provide evidence that discrete facial expressions are universal, genetically encoded, and linked with primate ancestors in evolution.

22. Universality in Physiological Responses to Emotion • Each of the universal emotions, when signaled by universal expressions, have a distinct and discrete physiological signature in autonomic nervous system and central nervous system. • This finding replicated in cross-cultural studies (e.g., Chinese and European Americans; Indonesians) • Emotions help individuals respond to emotional stimuli by preparing body to engage in activity (e.g., fear-flee; anger-fight)

23. Universality in Subjective Emotional Experience • Certainly, there were many more similarities across cultures in subjective feelings in response to emotions than there were differences • Evidence for universal, psychobiological emotional patterning in subjective response is strong.

24. Universality in the Coherence among Emotion Response Systems • Emotion response system coherence: various responses of emotion are related to each other in meaningful way • Cross-cultural coherence between self-reported expressive behaviors, emotional experiences, and physiology; between verbal and nonverbal expressions; and between emotion intensity and physiology

25. Universality in Emotional Recognition • Expressions of anger, disgust, fear, happiness, sadness, and surprise are universally recognized • Recent studies also suggest contempt, embarrassment, and pride may also be universally recognized

26. Summary • Emotions are universal psychological phenomenon that is based in evolution • Universality in emotion appraisal, expression, physiology, and recognition of emotions in others • These universal processes allow humans to adapt, respond, and cope with problems in social lives