PART III: THE FOUNDATIONS OF EDUCATION

1. PART III: THE FOUNDATIONS OF EDUCATION Governance and Finance

2. U.S. Constitution (Tenth Amendment) State Constitutions State Legislaturesmakes laws affecting public schools State Boards of Educationset policy affecting public schools Local Boards of Educationtranslate policy to public schools Local Schools Hierarchy of Educational Control Reed/Bergemann/Olson,In the Classroom: An Introduction to Education(Table 12.1)

3. Typical State and Local Educational Governance Structures Arends/Winitzky/Tannenbaum,Exploring Teaching: An Introduction to Education(Figure 11.1) Citizens Governor State Courts State Legislature State Department of Education State Board of Education Commissioner of Education Local Board of Education Citizens Superintendent

4. Superintendent Assistant Superintendent for Curriculum Assistant Superintendent for Business Assistant Superintendent for Special Services Principal Principal Principal Principal Teachers and Staff Teachers and Staff Teachers and Staff Teachers and Staff Students Students Students Students Typical State and Local Educational Governance Structures(continued) Arends/Winitzky/Tannenbaum,Exploring Teaching: An Introduction to Education (Figure 11.1)

5. Who Controls What? Levels of Educational Power Sadker/Sadker,Teachers, Schools, and Society(Table 10.1)

6. Who Controls What? Levels of Educational Power (continued) Sadker/Sadker,Teachers, Schools, and Society(Table 10.1)

7. Federal Budget Sadker/Sadker,Teachers, Schools, and Society(Figure 10.6) Source: NEA, based on the 1998 budget.

8. Public Opinion of Federal Educational Spending Sadker/Sadker,Teachers, Schools, and Society(Figure 10.5) Source: Greenberg-Quinlan Research, Inc./The Tarrance Group, January 1998.

9. Number of School Districts by State, School Year 1997-1998 Arends/Winitzky/Tannenbaum,Exploring Teaching: An Introduction to Education(Table 10.1) Source: U.S. Department of Education, May 1999, p. 10.

10. Number of School Districts by State, School Year 1997-1998 (continued) Arends/Winitzky/Tannenbaum,Exploring Teaching: An Introduction to Education(Table 10.1) Source: U.S. Department of Education, May 1999, p. 10.

11. Community Power Structures, School Boards, and Superintendents Spring,American Education(Table 7.1)

12. Everything You Always Wanted To Know about School Boards but Never Thought to Ask Sadker/Sadker,Teachers, Schools, and Society(Table 10.2) • The first school board was established in 1721 in Boston. • In the United States, there are almost 15,000 school boards in charge of 52 million students in 87,000 schools. • Three-quarters of the school districts are small, with fewer than 2,500 students in each. • Just 1 percent of the school districts in urban areas enroll 23 percent of all students in the United States. • Eighty-five percent of local school boards are elected. • School board members are typically white (86.9 percent), male (55.3 percent), financially secure (more than half earning above $50,000 and more than a third earning over $80,000), and middle-aged (85 percent being above 41 years of age). • School boards hire superintendents who look much like themselves (96 percent of the superintendents are white, 89 percent are male, 95 percent are married). Source: Data compiled from C. Emily Feistritzer, “A Profile of School Board Presidents,” in Patricia First and Herbert Walberg (eds.), School Boards: Changing Local Control (Berkeley: McCutchan, 1992); Jesse L. Freeman, Kenneth E. Underwood, and Jim C. Fortune, “What Boards Value,” American School Board Journal 178 (January 1991): pp. 32-37. Digest of Education Statistics, 1997. Educational Vital Signs, 1997. Characteristics of the 100 Largest Public Elementary and Secondary School Districts in U.S.: 1993-94, May, 1996. NCES.

13. Percentage of Revenues for Elementary and Secondary Schools from Local, State, and Federal Sources for Selected Years, 1919-1920 to 1996-1997 Arends/Winitzky/Tannenbaum,Exploring Teaching: An Introduction to Education(Table 10.6) Source: U. S. Department of Education, 1995, 1999.

14. The Public Education Dollar: Expenditures by Function, School Year 1996-1997 Arends/Winitzky/Tannenbaum,Exploring Teaching: An Introduction to Education(Table 11.6) Source: U. S. Department of Education. June, 1999, p. 5.

15. Source of Revenue per Student and School District Wealth Sadker/Sadker,Teachers, Schools, and Society(Figure 10.1) Source: Condition of Education, 1998.

16. Sources of Revenue for Public Elementary and Secondary Schools: 1970-71 to 1994-95 Sadker/Sadker,Teachers, Schools, and Society(Figure 10.2) Source: U. S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Statistics of State School Systems; Revenues and Expenditures for Public Elementary and Secondary Education; and Common Core of Data surveys.

17. Current Expenditure per Pupil in Public Elementary and Secondary Schools: 1970-71 to 1996-97 Sadker/Sadker,Teachers, Schools, and Society(Figure 10.3) Source: U. S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Statistics of State School Systems; Revenues and Expenditures for Public Elementary and Secondary Education; and Common Core of Data surveys.

18. School Resources and Student Achievement Sadker/Sadker,Teachers, Schools, and Society(Figure 15.2) Source: Linda Darling-Hammond, “Teachers and Teaching: Testing Policy Hypothesis From a National Commission Report,” Educational Researcher, 27, No 1, Jan-Feb 1998.

19. Legal Landmarks in Educational Finance Sadker/Sadker,Teachers, Schools, and Society • Serrano v. Priest (California, 1971) • San Antonio v. Rodriguez (U.S. Supreme Court, 1973) • Serrano II (California, 1976) • Levittown v. Nyquist (New York, 1982) • Rose and Blandford v. Council for Better Education et al. (Kentucky, 1989) • Edgewood v. Kirby (Texas, 1989) • Abbott v. Burke (New Jersey, 1990) Source: Adapted from Thomas Toch, “Separate but Not Equal,” Agenda 1 (Spring 1991): pp. 15-17.