IMS5006 - Information Systems Development Practices

1. IMS5006 - Information Systems Development Practices People themes in information systems development

2. The role of people in ISD • importance of user involvement/participation in systems development: user/developer communication and cultures • the developer as “technical expert” • lack of user satisfaction and commitment • technical success is not enough • user vs IT department relations

3. The role of people in ISD Some potential solutions: • Participative approaches • Management commitment/leadership • Improved human-computer interfaces • Training and education: developers and business users • End user computing • JRP and JAD sessions

4. People themes in IS development • User participation • End user computing • Stakeholder analysis • JAD (Joint Application Development) • Groupwork and groupware

5. People themes in ISD • in what ways have information systems development methodologies been influenced by these “people themes”? • how have techniques and tools relating to these “people themes” been incorporated into information systems development methodologies?

6. User participation • early systems development approaches: - focus on technical aspects of computer systems - little actual decision-making by users • problems: - users resented developers as “outsiders” with little understanding of the business environment - systems “imposed” on users and not “user friendly” - systems did not adequately support business needs

7. User participation: definitions participation as user involvement in systems design: “ a process in which two or more parties influence each other in making plans, policies or decisions. It is restricted to decisions that have future effects on all those making the decisions or those represented by them” (Mumford 1983, p. 22) participation may have different meanings for different groups: e.g. morally right, employee commitment, management tool, empowerment of employees etc.

8. User participation: definitions • Barki and Hartwick (1989) distinguish between: user participation a set of activities and behaviours performed by users user involvement a subjective, psychological state when a user considers a system to be both important and personally relevant How do these affect system usage and user satisfaction? How can we define and measure user satisfaction?

9. Mumford’s three levels of user participation three levels are identified by Mumford (1983): • consultative all users are consulted about/contribute ideas to the design process but the design task is carried out by systems analysts • representative design groups formed from elected or selected representatives take design decisions • consensus design group members constantly discuss ideas and solutions with all users

10. User participation expected benefits of user participation: • improved system quality: more complete, accurate requirements provides expertise about the organisation avoids development of unacceptable or unimportant features improves user understanding of the system • increased user acceptance: realistic expectations “arena” for conflict resolution users more committed to the system decreased user resistance

11. User participation Avison and Fitzgerald (2003) user participation has been growing: • managers should provide leadership by example • better user / developer communication • systems analysts need to understand business areas • Improved human - computer interface • Enid Mumford’s three levels of participation (ETHICS) • potential problems: fragmentation of user groups, developer resentment, power relationships

12. User participation and ISD methodologies • Structured analysis user walkthroughs, users select implementation option • SSADM user walkthroughs, user representation in development teams, users select technical option, • Information Engineering users active in design activities, management involved in ISP and BAA, user reviews • SSM users part of team: problem owners and solvers • ETHICS users do the design

13. End-user computing • Enabled by PCs and application packages for non-IT people e.g. spreadsheets, database, VisualBASIC etc • Users in business organisations were able to build their own business applications, either stand-alone or integrated with organisational systems • Definitions of end-user computing: e.g. “the practice of end-users developing, maintaining, and using their own information systems” (Mirani and King 1994)

14. End-user computing • Early 1980s: user-driven computing -end-user computing enabled by introduction of PCs -decentralisation of computing resources • Resulted in user satisfaction: -met needs unlikely to be satisfied by IT departments -some pressure off IT departments -end-users “close” to the business problems -systems resourced/costed within user department budgets

15. End-user computing • problems of control: validity and integrity of data lack of documentation security issues maintainability application “islands” duplication and inconsistencies assistance required by users

16. End-user computing • A “solution”: Information Centres -Staffed and run by IT department -Provide consultation, software and tools, liaison with vendors etc. to assist users in developing their own departmental information systems • Significant in 1980s and early 1990s • Increasingly sophisticated users of today have no need for Information Centres • Users today need support from IT corporate specialists when developing customer-oriented systems in particular i.e. change from the tactical, problem-solving role of the past to a strategic, consultant role

17. Stakeholder analysis Stakeholder: • Those groups either “vital to the survival and success of of the corporation or whose interests are vitally affected by the corporation” Smith and Hasnas (1999) in Avison and Fitzgerald (2003), p. 278 • Seven primary stakeholders: • Shareholders and investors • Employees • Customers • Suppliers • Trade associations • Environmental groups • Public groups (government, communities etc.)

18. Stakeholder analysis • Unstructured identification of potential stakeholders e.g. brainstorming • Consult/involve those identified • Problems: • primary stakeholders easy to identify • accountability to stakeholders • Establishing legal, moral rights e.g. privacy, risk • Stakeholder interests difficult to define e.g. subjective, unclear (interorganisational/global) • Balancing of stakeholder interests • A managerial imperative: leads to “successful” systems

19. JAD (Joint Application Development) • can be for analysis and/or design • originated in late 1970s at IBM • bring together key users, managers, systems analysts in a group meeting with a specific structure of roles and agenda • JRP (Joint Requirements Planning): key system requirements • JAD: specify the system’s design (external design only) • group meeting: avoid distractions identify areas of agreement and conflict resolve conflicts during the period of sessions

20. JAD sessions: roles • JAD participants: • facilitator: organise and run the sessions • scribe(s): takes notes on a PC, CASE tool etc • users: understand the system requirements • managers: organisational overview • systems analysts: technical knowledge, learn about the system • sponsor: senior executive who commits and funds the process

21. Joint Application Development (JAD) JAD sessions: • from one to five days • structured meeting room with white boards etc., CASE tools • located away from users’ workplace • outcome is documents detailing the system: workings of/requirements for the system/design

22. Joint Application Development (JAD) Preparing for JAD sessions: • JAD leader prepares and distributes agenda and documentation about scope and objectives • Agenda specifies issues to be discussed and time allocated to each • Ground rules for running the sessions are made clear • Ensure users who attend are knowledgeable about their business area

23. Joint Application Development (JAD) sessions Conducting JAD sessions: • Avoid deviating from the agenda • Keep to schedule (time for topics) • Ensure scribe takes adequate notes • Avoid using technical jargon • Use conflict resolution strategies • Allow ample breaks • Encourage group consensus • Encourage participation vs individuals dominating • Ensure ground rules are adhered to

24. JAD sessions benefits: • reduced time to move requirements/design forward (group vs one-on-one, details worked on between meetings) • key people work together to make important decisions • commitment is focused and intensive, not dissipated over time • conflicts and differences can be understood and resolved improved quality and productivity

25. Groupwork and Support Systems a group (or workgroup) 2 or more people (up to 25?) whose mission is to perform some task and who act as one unit group support systems systems which support organisational group activities, improving their effectiveness and efficiency includes: • CSCW (computer-supported co-operative work) - groups of people working together, especially professionals working on creative tasks • GDSS (group decision support systems) - groups of people involved in decision-making tasks

26. Group Support Systems related and overlapping concepts/technologies: groupware software products designed to support groups of people engaged in a common goal or task office automation technology designed to improve the functioning of the office, e.g. word processing, LANs computer conferencing electronic communication allowing two or more people at different locations to have a conference or collaborate on a task, an aid to discussion electronic meeting system IT-based environment supporting a group meeting that may be distributed geographically and temporally

27. Time/Place Communication Support Same Time Different Time e.g. meeting room e.g. team room, shared offices (e.g. shift work) Same Place mutimedia presentation systems, keypad-based voting systems, facilitated meetings using networked PCs e-mail, messaging e.g. meeting e.g. group task e-mail, data and file sharing, group authoring tools, workflow software Different Place screen sharing, video conferencing from DeSanctis & Gallupe (1985)

28. Group Support Systems working in groups: e.g. committees, teams, review panels, task force advantages • a group has more information than any one member • working in a group stimulates the process, ideas, problem solving • risk balance: moderate high riskers and encourage conservatives • better at finding errors • synergy, accountability, commitment

29. Group Support Systems working in groups: e.g. committees, teams, review panels, task force disadvantages • groupthink: pressures to conform • tendency of group members to rely on others to do the work • time-consuming, expensive • inappropriate influences: domination, fear of speaking up • difficulties of co-ordination, and need for planning • non-productive time, e.g. socialising, waiting for people • compromise, poor quality decisions, lack of participation

30. Groupware • software tools that support and help co-ordinate the activities of a group require their users to be connected to a network of computers and databases: intranets provide access to internal organisational information and facilities e.g. e-mail, corporate databases, directories, software the Internet provides access to external information and communication and collaboration facilities • groupware products can be used as separate packages or as integrated systems

31. Groupware groupware is an ambiguous term, 100s of products on the market • integrated systems: e.g. Lotus Notes, Netscape Communicator • separate applications: browsers, intelligent agents, search engines electronic mail bulletin boards and newsgroups (email-based discussion groups) messaging systems workflow software: accessing, tracking, and directing documents and information screensharing: same material shown on participants' screens (e.g. manuscripts, spreadsheets) integrated conferencing services: teleconferencing, video conferencing

32. Groupware Lotus Notes: an integrated system groupware product • A group communications environment for users to access and create information that is collected, stored, organised and disseminated on one or more networks • Direct web access and access to we browsers • Provides workgroup email, distributed databases, bulletin boards, text editing, document management, application development tools, and workflow capabilities all integrated using a graphic menu-based interface (Windows interface in client/server architecture)

33. References • Prescribed text: Avison, D.E. & Fitzgerald, G. (2003). Information Systems Development: Methodologies, Techniques and Tools. (3rd ed), McGraw-Hill, London. Chapters 1, 7, 16 • Turban, E. and Aronson, J. (1998) Decision Support Systems and Intelligent Systems, (5th ed) Prentice-Hall DeSanctis, G. and Gallupe, R. (1985) “Group Decision Support Systems: A New Frontier”, in Database Jessup, L. and Valacich, A. eds (1993) Group Support Systems: New Perspectives, MacMillan