Mortality Awareness and Belief in Supernatural Agents

1. Mortality Awareness and Belief in Supernatural Agents Ara Norenzayan Department of Psychology University of British Columbia

2. Cross Cultural Observations • Nearly all societies have supernatural beliefs; Most people in the world believe in some kind of Higher Power (60-90%) • Supernatural beliefs are the cornerstone of religions • The influence of religions is expected to increase in the coming decades

3. Surveys of Religion show that Americans Believe in… % Believe • God 96% • Heaven 93% • Hell 85% • Psychic and spiritual healing 54% • ESP or extrasensory perception 50% • Haunted houses 50% • Possession by the devil 41% • Ghosts of dead people returning 38% • Clairvoyance 32% Gallup Poll, 1994, 2001

4. Cross Cultural Comparisons How Important is God in your life? • West Africa 97% • Latin America 87% • North America 83% • Western Europe 49% • Eastern Europe 49% • South East Asia 47% • Total Average 63% • Middle East ? Gallup International Millenium Survey (60 countries)

5. The Secularization Myth • Despite the rise of science and technology, the influence of religions has not diminished • Estimated 10,000 religions in the world • 2-3 religions born every day • The rise of religion in the 21st century--The age of religious conflicts? • Two exceptions: Europe and academia

6. Supernatural Agent Beliefs • Supernatural agent beliefs are produced by graded and systematic violations of intuitive agent beliefs (Boyer, 1994) • Cultural manipulation of agency-detection module • ghost = intentional agent + invisible + passes through solid objects

7. Supernatural Agents and Awareness of Death • Religious beliefs function to manage terror of death • Becker, (1973); Durkheim (1915); Freud, 1913; Kierkegaard, (1843) • “Religion is like a fire extinguisher. You never know when you are going to need it. So it’s best to have one handy.” -- Al Franken, Oh, The Things I Know!

8. Terror Management Theory • Terror Management Theory (Greenberg, et al., 1990) • Two ways to cope with the awareness of death • 1) Cultural worldview: bolster one’s cultural worldview (and derogate other worldviews) • 2) Perceive oneself as a good cultural member (self esteem)

9. Questions • Does awareness of death lead to more belief in supernatural agents? • Cultural Worldview Bolstering Hypothesis: death increases culturally-familiar SNL belief, decreases culturally alien SNL belief • Distinct Supernatural Buffer Hypothesis: death increases SNL belief even when culturally alien

10. “Buddha” Study • Religious identification (pretest) • Mortality salience vs. control story • Newspaper article reporting scientific study about the power of Buddhist prayer on fertility ratesof women wanting to get pregnant • Questions about belief in Buddha, and Buddha’s ability to answer prayers • 80 Participants at an American University, 59% Christian, 26% no religion, no Buddhists

11. “Buddha” Study • Key dependent measures: • Buddha prayed to hears prayers • Evidence that Buddha can answer prayers • Buddha/a higher power can hear prayers • Buddha/a higher power can answer prayers

12. Belief in The Power of Buddhist Prayer by Mostly Christians

13. Results of “Buddha” Study • Awareness of death encouraged more belief in a culturally alien supernatural agent • Those who identified with their own religion were MORE likely to believe in the power of Buddhist Prayer when death was salient (r = .68, p < .01) • In the control condition, no relationship between religious ID and belief in Buddha (r = .03) • Support for the distinct buffer hypothesis

14. “Shaman” Study • Essay: mortality salience vs. negative affect vs. control • Newspaper article on the use of clairvoyant shamans in the Russian military to assist in intelligence gathering • Questions about belief in shamanic spirits, and their ability to offer guidance and information • 142 Participants in Vancouver, religious vs. not

15. “Shaman” Study • Key dependent measures: • 1a) Paranormal clairvoyance is not possible (RS) • 1b) Ancestral shamanic spirits exist • 1c) Ancestral shamanic spirits offer guidance and info • 2a) Achievements of program offer evidence that ancestral spirits exist • 2b) Achievements of program offer evidence that ancestral spirits offer guidance and info • 3a) God/a higher power exists • 3b) God/a higher power offers reliable guidance and info

16. Control Control NA MortailitySalient Belief in Ancestral Spirits Degree of Supernatural Belief Alien Spirits Evidence God/HP Participants Indicating a Religion

17. Control Control NA MortailitySalient Belief in Ancestral Spirits Degree of Supernatural Belief Alien Spirits Evidence God/HP Non-Religious Participants

18. Ongoing Studies… • Cross cultural generality • Yucatec Maya villagers • Atheists in the foxhole • Cultural transmission and stabilization of supernaturals

19. Conclusions from Studies • Not side-effect of worldview bolstering • Not merely social identification w/religious group • Privileged link between awareness of mortality and supernatural beliefs • “In a sea storm, voyagers will pray to any God”

20. No, no, that’s not a sin either. My goodness, you must have worried yourself to death.”

21. Theoretical Framework(Atran & Norenzayan, in press, BBS) In nearly all known societies, there are: • 1) Belief in supernatural agents (Gods, ghosts), who manage • 2) Existential anxieties (death & social deception), that require • 3) Costly commitment (sacrifice of time, resources) • Ritually coordinated through affective displays, yielding “religion”

22. The Four Cs of Religion Religion is not a biological adaptation; it is a cultural byproduct of multiple interacting mental modules and universal needs • Counterintuition: Intentional agents (cognitive aspect) • Compassion: Existential anxieties (emotional aspect) • Costly Commitment (motivational aspect) • Communion: ritualized coordination (social aspect)