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UNIT I

UNIT I. Introduction. Switching A switch is a mechanism that allows us to interconnect links to form a larger network. A switch is a multi-input, multi-output device, which transfers packets from an input to one or more outputs. (a) Circuit switching. (b) Packet switching.

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UNIT I

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  1. UNIT I

  2. Introduction

  3. Switching A switch is a mechanism that allows us to interconnect links to form a larger network. A switch is a multi-input, multi-output device, which transfers packets from an input to one or more outputs. (a) Circuit switching. (b) Packet switching

  4. Circuit Switching • Seeking out and establishing a physical copper path from end-to-end • Circuit switching implies the need to first set upa dedicated, end-to-end path for the connection before the information transfer takes place. • Once the connection is made the only delay is propagation time. Store-and-Forward Networks (Packet Switching) • Intermediate processors (IMPS, nodes, routers, gateways, switches) along the path store the incoming block of data. • Each block is received in its entirety, inspected for errors, and retransmitted along the path to the destination. This implies buffering at the router and one transmission time per hop.

  5. Packet Switched Networks

  6. Basic technology the same as in the 1970s • One of the few effective technologies for long distance data communications • Frame relay and ATM are variants of packet-switching • Advantages: • flexibility, resource sharing, robust, responsive • Disadvantages: • Time delays in distributed network, overhead penalties • Need for routing and congestion control Advantages over Circuit-Switching • Greater line efficiency Many packets can go over shared link • Data rate conversions Two stations of different data rates can exchange packets. • Non-blocking under heavy traffic (but increased delays)

  7. Disadvantages relative to Circuit-Switching • Packets incur additional delay with every node they pass through • Jitter: variation in packet delay • Data overhead in every packet for routing information, etc • Processing overhead for every packet at every node traversed

  8. Switching Technique • Large messages broken up into smaller packets • Datagram • Each packet sent independently of the others • No call setup • More reliable (can route around failed nodes or congestion) • Virtual circuit • Fixed route established before any packets sent • No need for routing decision for each packet at each node

  9. X.25 • X.25 is a packet-switching wide area network developed by ITU-T in 1976. • X.25 defines how a packet-mode terminal can be connected to a packet network for the exchange of data. • X.25 is what is known as subscriber network interface (SNI) protocol. • It defines how the user’s DTE communicates with the network and how packets are sent over that network using DCEs.

  10. X.25 Devices • Data Terminal Equipment (DTE) • Terminals, personal computers, and network hosts • Located on premises of subscriber • Data Circuit-terminating Equipment (DCE) • Modems and packet switches • Usually located at carrier facility • Packet Switching Exchange (PSE) • Switches that make up the carrier network

  11. X.25 network is a packet switching network that used X.25 protocol. • X.25 is a standard packet switching protocol that has been widely used in WAN. • X.25 is a standard for interface between the host system with the packet switching network in which it defines how DTE is connected and communicates with packet switching network. • It uses a virtual circuit approach to packet switching (SVC and PVC) and uses asynchronous (statistical) TDM to multiplex packets.

  12. X.25 Layers in Relation to the OSI Layers

  13. X.25 Layers X.25 protocol specifies three layers: • Physical Layer (X.21) • Frame Layer (LAPB) (Link level) • Packet Layer (PLP) (Packet Layer Protocol)

  14. X.25 mapping to OSI Model Application Other Services Presentation Session Transport Network PLP X.25 Protocol Suite Data Link LAPB Physical x.21 bis, EIA/TIA-232, EIA/TIA-449, EIA-530, G.703

  15. X.25 – Physical Layers • Specifies the physical interface between the node (computer, terminal) and the link that connected to X.25 network. • Specifies a protocol called X.21 or X.21bis (interface). • Similar enough to other PHY layer protocols, such as EIA-232.

  16. X.21 in PHY layer of X.25 • X.21,sometimes referred to as X21, interface is a specification for differential communications introduced in the mid 1970’s by the ITU-T. X.21 was first introduced as a means to provide a digital signaling interface for telecommunications between carriers and customer’s equipment. This includes specifications for DTE/DCE physical interface elements, alignment of call control characters and error checking, elements of the call control phase for circuit switching services, and test loops. • When X.21 is used with V.11, it provides synchronous data transmission at rates from 100 kbit/s to 10 Mbit/s. There is also a variant of X.21 which is only used in select legacy applications, “circuit switched X.21”. X.21 normally is found on a 15-pin D Sub connector and is capable of running full-duplex data transmissions. • The Signal Element Timing, or clock, is provided by the carrier (your telephone company), and is responsible for correct clocking of the data. X.21 was primarily used in Europe and Japan, for example in the Scandinavian DATEX and German DATEX-L circuit switched networks during the 1980s.

  17. X.21 hardware interface

  18. X.25 Frame Layer • Provides a reliable data transfer process through data link control which used link access procedure, balanced (LAPB) protocol. • There are 3 categories of frame involved in the LAPB frame format: I-Frames – encapsulate PLP packets from the network layer and before being passed to the physical layer S-Frames – flow and error control in the frame layer U-Frames - used to set up and disconnect the links between a DTE and a DCE. In the frame layer, communication between a DTE - DCE involves three phases: 1: Link Setup ; 2: Packet Transfer ; 3: Link Disconnect

  19. Format of a Frame in X.25

  20. Frame Layer and Packet Layer Domains

  21. Three Phases of the Frame Layer

  22. X.25 Packet layer (PLP) • Packet Layer Protocol (PLP) - It is the network layer in X.25 - This layer is responsible for establishing the connection, transferring the data, and terminating the connection between 2 DTEs. - It also responsible for creating the virtual circuits and negotiating network services between two DTEs. - Virtual circuits in X.25 are created at the network layer (not the data link layers as in some other wide area networks such as Frame Relay and ATM)

  23. Implementation of X.25 • X.25 protocol is a packet-switched virtual circuit network. • Virtual Circuit in X.25 created at the network layer. unlike Frame Relay and ATM which both VC created at Data Link Layer. • Fig 17.7 shows an X.25 network in which 3 virtual circuits have been created between DTE A and 3 other DTEs.

  24. Frame Relay

  25. Frame Relay Architecture • X.25 has 3 layers: physical, link, network • Frame Relay has 2 layers: physical and data link (or LAPF) • LAPF core: minimal data link control • Preservation of order for frames • Small probability of frame loss • LAPF control: additional data link or network layer end-to-end functions

  26. LAPF Core LAPF core protocol installed on all subscriber systems and on all frame relay nodes. LAPF core provides a minimal set of data link control functions • Frame delimiting, alignment and transparency • Frame multiplexing/demultiplexing • Inspection of frame for length constraints • Detection of transmission errors • Congestion control

  27. LAPF-core Formats

  28. The Flag field is a unique pattern that delimits the start and end of the frame. The FCS field is used for error detection. On transmission, the FCS checksum is calculated and stored in the FCS field. On reception, the checksum is again calculated and compared to the value strode in the incoming FCS field. I there is a mismatch, then the frame is assumed to be in error and is discarded. • The Address field has a default length of 2 octets and may be extended to 3 or 4 octets. It carries a data link connection identifier (DLCI) of 10,17, or 24 bits. The length of the Address field, and hence of the of the DLCI, is determined by the address field extension (EA) bits. The C/R bit is application specific and not used by the standard frame relay protocol. The remaining bits in the address field have to do with congestion control.

  29. User Data Transfer • No control field, which is normally used for: • Identify frame type (data or control) • Sequence numbers • Implication: • Connection setup/teardown carried on separate channel • Cannot do flow and error control Data transfer involves the following stages • Establish a logical connection between two end points, and assign a unique DLCI to the connection • Exchange information in data frames. Each frame includes a DLCI field to identify the connection • Release the logical connection

  30. Frame Relay Call Control 4 message types needed • SETUP • CONNECT • RELEASE • RELEASE COMPLETE A frame with DLCI = 0 contain a call control message in the information field. Logical Connection established by sending a SETUP message. Upon receiving the SETUP message, must reply with a CONNECT message if it accepts the connection; otherwise it responds with a RELEASE COMPLETE message. The side sending the SETUP message may assign the DLCI by choosing an unused value and including this value in the SETUP message. Either side may request to clear a logical connection by sending a RELEASE message. The other side, upon receipt of this message, must respond with a RELEASE COMPLETE message.

  31. ATM • Multi-speed network environment that provides a variety of complex network services • Can carry voice, data, video separately or simultaneously • Can be used in LANs, MANs, or WANs • Fixed-lenth packets (cells) • Allows multiple logical connections to be multiplexed • Minimal error and flow control capabilities • Connection-oriented virtual channel

  32. Cell Switched ATM • Similar to frame relay • Difference? • Frame relay switches variable length frames within frame relay cloud from source to destination • ATM switches fixed-length cells (48 byte information field, 5 byte header) • Based on packet switching (connection-oriented) • Cell sequence integrity preserved via virtual channel • VCC – virtual channel connection – is set up between end users, variable rate, full duplex • VCC also used for control • Information field is carried transparently through the network, with minimal error control

  33. Protocol Architecture

  34. User plane : Provides for user information, along with associated controls (e.g. flow control, error control) • Control plane : Performs call control and connection control functions • Management plane : Includes plane management, which performs management functions related to a system as a whole and provides coordination between all the planes, and layer management, which performs management functions relating to resources and parameters residing in its protocol entities

  35. ATM Physical Layer • Transports cells via a communications channel (either optical or electrical) • LAN support: 25-155 Mbps copper or fiber • WAN support: SONET rates over fiber • Physical Medium Sublayer: bit transfer, bit alignment, and copper/fiber conversions • Transmission Convergence Sublayer: bit/cell conversion at sending and receiving nodes

  36. ATM Layer • Handles functions of the network layer: • Connection-oriented without acknowledgements • Two possible interfaces: • UNI – User-Network Interface: Boundary between an ATM network and host • NNI – Network-Network Interface: Between two ATM switches

  37. UNI/NNI Interface

  38. ATM Adaptation Layer (AAL) • Maps higher-layer information into ATM cells to be transported over an ATM network • Collects information from ATM cells for delivery to higher layers

  39. Virtual Connections • Virtual Channel Connection (VCC) – Full duplex virtual circuit with logical connection between source and destination – can be PVC or SVC • Virtual Path Connection (VPC) – Semi-permanent (or customer controlled or network controlled) connection that provides a logical collection of virtual channels that have the same endpoint • A single virtual path supports multiple virtual channels (analogy – highway = VPC, lane = VCC)

  40. VCI vs VPI • VPI – Virtual Path Identifier – identified in cell’s header. Cannot establish a virtual channel before virtual path • VCI – Virtual Channel Identifier – only have local significance – different virtual paths reuse VCIs (but VCIs on same path must be unique)

  41. What is so special about a virtual path? • ATM is connection-oriented, so circuit must be established before transmission • As route established, VPIs and VCIs are assigned • VPI and VCI info suffices for addressing info • Simplified network architecture (based on VC or VP) • Increased network performance and reliability (fewer, aggregated entities because of simplified network architecture) • Reduces processing and short connection setup time • User may define closed user group or closed networks of virtual channel bundles

  42. ATM Connection Relationships

  43. Definition of Terms • COS – Class of Service – sets a priority of data delivery, based upon the class. Higher priority data get delivered before lower priority data (example – which should have higher priority – streaming video or email?) • QOS – Quality of Service – involves establishing certain parameters for a specific transmission – e.g. amount of bandwidth required for a given priority data transmission, max. amount of latency tolerated, etc • Both are required to deliver real-time voice and video traffic

  44. Call Establishment Using VPs

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