Chapter 11 Language Aquisition

1. Chapter 11 Language Aquisition

2. Outline First Language Acquisition Second Language Acquisition Individual Differences in Second Language Acquisition Instruction and L2 Acquisition

3. Terminology: first language, native language, mother tongue= L1 = NL second language= L2 = SL second langage acquisition =SLA = L2 acquisition foreign language= FL target language =TL interlanguage= IL

4. 11.1 First Language Acquisition Objectives: 1. What is L1 acquisition? What are the differences between learning and acquisition? 2. What are L1 acquisition theories? 3. How does a child acquire his mother tongue?

5. What is L1 acquisition? L1 acquisition: It is the term most commonly used to describe the process whereby children become speakers of their native language or languages, although some linguists prefer to use the term language learning. (P268) Acquisition- naturally in communicative situations Learning-a conscious process

6. Discussion: what’s the difference between acquisition and learning? List them.

7. Approaches to L1 The behaviorist approach The innateness approach The interactionist approach

8. The behaviorist approach (say what I say) B.F. Skinner The behaviorist views: Mind/Brain is a blank. Language is learnt. Language learning is a matter of imitation and habit formation. Learning by making a stimulus-response connection through habit-formation, imitation, repetition, reinforcement, conditioning. Listening and responding to input is sufficient

9. Example：Peter (24 months) is playing with a dump truck. A=Adult. A: What happened to it? P: (looking under chair for it) Lose it. Dump truck! Dump truck!Fall!Fall! A: Yes, the dump truck fell down. P: Dump truck fell down. Dump truck.

10. Criticism: Behaviorism only offers a partial explanation of some regular and routines aspects of children’s early language learning. It can’t account for the normal language development of children who rarely imitate and practice. It fails to explain acquisition of more complex grammatical structures.

11. The innateness approach (It’s all in your mind) The innateness hypothesis: 1. Mind is not a blank. 2. Children are biologically programmed for language and that language develops in the child in just the same way that other biological functions develop. 3. Chomsky originally referred to this special ability as LAD and later as UG, which is considered to consist of a set of principles which are common to all languages. E.g. Children learn to walk and doesn’t have to be taught. 4. Natural language serves as a trigger to activate the device. Once it is activated, the child is able to discover the structure of the language. 5. This approach also claims that this built-in ability is linked in some manner to physiological maturation.

12. The interactionist approach （ A little help from my friends） Intellectual development is the result of the interaction of hereditary and environmental factors. Knowledge is not merely transmitted verbally but must be constructed and reconstructed by the learner. Language itself is not a separate innate characteristic, but one of several abilities resulting from cognitive maturation, and it is structured by reason.

13. In conclusion, each of the theories may help to explain a different aspect of children’s language development. And the nature of language acquisition is still an open question. 1. Behaviorism explains the acquisition of simple grammar. 2. Innatism seems plausible in explaining the acquisition of complex grammar. 3. Interactionism explains how children learn to use language.

16. 11.2 SLA Objectives: 1. What is SLA? 2. What is the development of SLA? 3. What is contrastive analysis? What is negative transfer and interference? 4. What is the difference between an error and a mistake? What is Error analysis? How to classify the errors? What are the causes of errors? 5. What is interlanguage? What is its main feature?

17. L2 Acquisition L2 Acquisition: It can be defined as the way in which people learn a language other than their mother tongue, inside or outside of a classroom (P273). Second language acquisition is closely related to the fields of linguistics, psychology, neuroscience, sociology, and education. Second can refer to the learning of a third or fourth language in addition to the mother tongue.

18. History of SLA Contrastive analysis (comparison of L1 & L2) Error analysis (analysis of learner errors) Interlanguage (analysis of learner language)

19. Contrastive analysis (CA, 1950s) Contrastive analysis : researchers systematically compare the first language and the target language.(P274) Lado (1957) Positive transfer (facilitation) vs Negative transfer (interference)

20. Transfer Transfer: “Transfer is influence that the learner’s L1 exerts on the acquisition of an L2”. Ellis (1997: 51) Positive transfer (facilitation) : language learning consists mostly of the projection of the system of the first language to the system of the second language. Thus, language learning will be successful when the two languages happen to be similar. (Lado) Negative transfer (interference): Language learning will be unsuccessful when the second language happens to be very different. Lado (1957)

21. Transfer L1 influence on L2: Pronunciation n/l e.g. knife vs. life r/l e.g. fried rice vs. flied rice Θ/d e.g. thirty vs. dirty L1 influence on L2: Syntax I very much like you. L1 influence on L2: Semantics or pragmatics (Chinglish) We like to kick the ball. His skin was smiling, but not his flesh. People Mountain People Sea. If you don’t good good study, I’ll give you some color to see see.

22. Criticism of CA • It predicted some difficulties that were not observed in L2 learners. • It failed to predict some difficulties that were observed in L2 learners. • It was more successful in phonology than in other areas of language, and declined in the 1970s as learning difficulties began to be explained by other factors.

23. Error Analysis (EA, 1960s) Error Analysis: It was established in the 1960s by Stephen Pit Corder and colleagues.In second language acquisition, error analysis studies the types and causes of language errors. It is a reaction against CA(NL-TL comparison), with an emphasis on the learner. It views errors as evidence of IL, a rule-governed system, not as something of pedagogical interest only.

24. Mistakes versus errors: Mistake: Incorrect forms caused by lack of attention, fatigue, carelessness, or some other performance. e.g. know the rules, carelessly make the mistake “I goed home yesterday.” Errors: Incorrect forms in speech and writing by a non­-native speaker of a second language, due to his incomplete knowledge of the rules of the target language. e.g. 我不去――I not go.

25. The purposes of error analysis: • (i) Identify strategies which learners use in language learning • (ii) Try to identify the causes of learner errors • (iii) Obtain information on common difficulties in language learning, as an aid to teaching or in the preparation of teaching materials.

26. Classifying errors Interlingual errors(语内错误): results from language transfer, i.e. caused by learners’ native language. e.g. 我来自中国，广州。――*I come from China, Guangzhou. Intralingual errors（语际错误）: results from faulty or partial learning of target language, may caused by influence of one TL item upon another. （developmental error) He is coming. He comes. *He is comes.

27. Causes of errors 1.Over-generalization e.g. he can sings, we are hope, it is occurs, he come from 2.Ignorance of rule restriction e.g. The man whom I saw him. 3. Incomplete application of rules e.g. T: Do you read much? S: Yes, I read much. T: Ask her how long it takes. S: How long it takes? 4. False concepts hypothesized e.g. a) When I first saw him, he was too young. b) I was very lazy to stay at home. ∵This soup is very hot. I can’t drink it. This soup is too hot to drink. ∴Avoid exercises based on contrast and transformation

28. EA steps: • Collect errors • Identify errors • Classify errors • Quantify errors • Analyze source • Remedy e.g. pattern drill

29. Problems with E.A. Total reliance on errors in the absence of other information (not the whole picture) Difficulty in determining what an error is an error Difficulties identifying causes of errors

30. Interlanguage (1970s) Target language Mother tongue interlanguage Definition: The term that refers to the systematic knowledge of a second language which is independent of both the learner' first language and the target language. Interlanguage is a term coined by Selinker. (Larry Selinker)

31. The charateristics of interlanguage Interlanguages are systematic. Interlanguages are also dynamic. Its main feature is fossilization

32. Feature: Fossilization Interlanguage pattern which seem not to change, even after extensive exposure to or instruction in the TL. Cessation of IL learning. Stabilization is the first sign of fossilization.

33. Factors hypothesized to influence fossilization Internal factors: 1. Age---brains lose plasticity, features cannot be mastered 2.Lack of desire to acculturate--make no efforts to adopt TL cultural norms External factors: 1. Communicative pressure Persistent pressure to communicate ideas that require the use of language that exceeds the learner’s linguistic competence leads to fossilization. 2. Lack of learning opportunity Learners lack opportunities for receiving input and also for using the L2. 3. The nature of the feedback on learner’s use of L2 Positive cognitive feedback (signaling ‘I understand you’) results in fossilization; negative feedback (signaling ‘I don’t understand you’) helps avoid fossilization.

34. 11.3 Individual Differences in Second Language Acquisition Questions 1. Why are some learners more successful than others? 2. What are the types of individual differences?

35. 11.3 Individual Differences in Second Language Acquisition Individual differences are as follows (Ellis 2004): • Abilities: Intelligence, language aptitude(语言学能), memory • Propensities（倾向性）: Learning style, motivation, anxiety, personality, willingness to communicate • Learner cognitions about L2: Learner beliefs • Learner actions: Learning strategies

36. Language aptitude --the natural ability to learn a language, --the specific ability a learner has for an L2. • Language aptitude tests • -The Modern Language Aptitude Test (MLAT) • (Carrol and Sapon, 1959)

37. Language aptitude test • MLAT components • Phonemic coding ability（语音编码能力） • Grammatical sensitivity （语法敏感性） • Inductive language learning ability（归纳能力） • Rote-learning ability (for learning a foreign （机械记忆能力）language) • Suitable for Grade 9-12 students and adults

38. Language aptitude test -The Pimsleur Language Aptitude Battery (PLAB) • Suitable for Grade 7-12 students • Predicts the four factors that influence foreign language study • verbal intelligence • motivation • auditory ability • grade point average （一般学业成绩）

39. Cognitive style • An individual’s preferred way of processing information and dealing with other people. Common division into • field-dependent(场依赖） • field-independent（场独立）

40. 镶嵌图形测试

41. Cognitive style (propensity) • Field-dependent people（场依存） • see things holistically • have trouble seeing internal structure • are people-oriented • find social interaction easy • Field-independent people（场独立） • are more analytical • see parts rather than the whole • are more individualistic • are less social

42. Field-dependent vs. field-independent

43. Reflection What type of learners are you? Which perform better at the structure?

44. Hansen and Stansfield experiment Subjects: 293 beginner learners of Spanish at American Universities Result: field independent learners are more successful all around. The reasons: （认知重构能力强） First, they are more likely to analyze the structure items . Second, they may more actively process the input they receive to build up hypotheses about how the language works. Third, they would develop a broader and deeper understanding of the structure of the language.

45. Personality traits Anxious self-confident Risk-avoiding Risk-taking Shy Adventuresome Introverted Extroverted Inner-directed Other-directed Reflexive Impulsive Imaginative Uninquisitive Creative Uncreative

46. Personality traits Trait most studied: whether learners are extroverted (outgoing) or introverted Extrovert: sociable; dislikes solitude; takes risks; impulsive Introvert: introspective; quiet; reserved; better understanding of forms

47. Personality traits • Hypotheses • extroversion is a positive factor, since: • more input (Krashen 1985) • more interaction (Long, 1985) • more output (Swain, 1985) • introversion is a positive factor, since better at learning and using higher cognitive skills • Hypotheses • extroverts are more fluent in spontaneous oral language, but aren’t any more accurate • introverts are good at reading and learning of grammar

48. Learning strategies Learning strategies are the particular approaches or techniques that learners use to try to learn an L2.(p281) Three major types of learning strategies: Cognitive strategies Metacognitive strategies Social strategies

49. Cognitive strategies Cognitive strategies refer to the steps or operations used in problem solving that need direct analysis,transformation or synthesis of learning materials. E.g. repeating words, classifying words according to their semantic attributes, predicting outcomes, summarizing, using visual images, transferring, and elaboration to integrate new ideas with known information

50. Metacognitive strategies Metacognitive strategies make use of knowledge about cognitive processes and constitute attempts to regulate language learning by means of planning, monitoring and evaluating. E.g. selective attention for key words, planning of the outline, monitoring the output, checking comprehension by answering questions