Language and Thought PY201H 8th edition

1. Chapter 8 Language and Thought PY201H 8th edition

2. Why is Language Important? Represents unique form of abstraction in human species Relevant to the form and manner of information storage Relevance to thinking and problem-solving is unquestioned Chief means of human communication Language influences perception and memory

3. Critical properties of language? Clark & Clark (1977) Communicative Permits individuals to communicate Arbitrary Relationship of elements in language and their meaning, symbolic and semantic Generative Built together in new, limitless ways Structured Pattern is not arbitrary Dynamic Changing (new words, new rules)

4. Linguistic Hierarchy – F 8.1 Phonology: unit = phoneme – Table 8.1 single speech sound, 200 possible English has about 45; 9 make up half our words, French (37), Spanish (28), German (45) , Hawaiian (13) dimensions: voiced (“a”); unvoiced (“s”); fricatives (“sh”), plosives (“t”); place of articulation (palate v. lips) Morphology: unit = morpheme Smallest unit of meaning (words, parts of words, etc.) Free (e.g., “old”, “the”) vs. bound (e.g., “er”, “ist”) Over 100,000 words formed by morpheme combinations Content morphemes bulk of meaning Function morphemes add detail Semantics: study of meaning denotation vs. connotation words as economic labels; link between language and concepts Syntax: rules that govern combination of morphemes in phrases and sentences; notion of interdependency prescriptive vs. descriptive grammar “Daddy, what did you bring that book that I don’t want to be read to out of up for”?

6. Language Acquisition In order to speak/sign we must acquire the following skills: SEGMENTATION - how to separate sounds in a continuous flow LEXICAL LEARNING SEMANTICS - meaning SYNTAX AND MORPHOLOGY -> GRAMMAR PRAGMATICS & DISCOURSE SKILLS – social rules of language Most of this work is done by the age of 3

7. Sound energy for the phrase “Mice eat oats and does eat oats and little lambs eat ivy.” The italicized words just below the sound record indicate how this phrase was pronounced by the speaker. The vertical lines next to the words indicate where each word begins. Note that it is difficult or impossible to tell from the sound record where one word ends and the other begins. (Speech signal courtesy of Peter Howell).

8. Language Development: Milestones Language production and speech perception Table 8.2 Initial vocalizations similar across languages Crying, cooing, babbling which contains all 200 phonemes 6 months – babbling sounds begin to resemble surrounding language 1 year – first word, usually is ? similar cross-culturally – words for parents lose ability to distinguish phonemes (sound combinations) that are not in the native language receptive vs. expressive language, receptive is much larger than expressive Infant vocalizations are initially similar across languages, involving all phonemes. Infants cry, coo, and make repetitive babbling vocalizations of all phonemes. By the age of 6 months, the babbling sounds being to resemble those of the infants’ surrounding language. By the time an infant is 12 months of age, the first word is typically spoken, usually dada, mama, papa, etc. This is similar across cultures. While few words are spoken (expressive language) at this stage, research indicates that very young children may actually understand (receptive language) more language than they can produce. Infant vocalizations are initially similar across languages, involving all phonemes. Infants cry, coo, and make repetitive babbling vocalizations of all phonemes. By the age of 6 months, the babbling sounds being to resemble those of the infants’ surrounding language. By the time an infant is 12 months of age, the first word is typically spoken, usually dada, mama, papa, etc. This is similar across cultures. While few words are spoken (expressive language) at this stage, research indicates that very young children may actually understand (receptive language) more language than they can produce.

10. Language Development: Milestones Continued 18-24 months – vocabulary spurt (Barrett, 1995) – Figure 8.2 fast mapping over and underextensions Holophrasic speech: 18-20 months - 50 words 24 months - 200-400 words End of second year – combine words Telegraphic speech Mean Length of Utterance (MLU) measurement unit of speech production End of third year – complex ideas, plural, past tense Overregularization, Berko (1958) study of “Wugs” Four through six – complex syntax and metalinguistics Age 8 – average vocabulary is 18,000 words – Figure 8.3 Ages 1 – 8 – an average of 8 new words a day Later: Written language and reading At about the age of 18-24 months, the previously very slow acquisition of new words suddenly spurts. This proceeds at a dizzying pace, by the first grade the average child has a vocabulary of approx. 10,000 words, by the 5th grade, 40,000. Some 2-year-olds learn as many as 20 new words a week. Fast mapping is the process by which children map a word onto an underlying concept after only one exposure. Toddlers often make errors in using new words. Overextensions occur when a child incorrectly uses a word to describe a wider set of objects or actions than it is meant to…using the word ball for anything round. Underextensions occur when a child incorrectly uses a word to describe a narrower set of objects or actions than it is meant to…using the word doll only to refer to a favorite doll. By the end of the second year, children begin combining words to produce meaningful sentences. These sentences are characterized as telegraphic, because they resemble telegrams, consisting mainly of content words, with articles, prepositions, and other less critical words omitted…ex., “Give doll," Researchers study the language of young children by calculating the MLU (mean length of utterance), the average length of their spoken statements (measured in morphemes). By the end of the third year, children can express complex ideas; however, they continue to make mistakes such as overregularizing…generalizing grammatical rules incorrectly to irregular cases where they do not apply…”he goed home,” for example. At about the age of 18-24 months, the previously very slow acquisition of new words suddenly spurts. This proceeds at a dizzying pace, by the first grade the average child has a vocabulary of approx. 10,000 words, by the 5th grade, 40,000. Some 2-year-olds learn as many as 20 new words a week. Fast mapping is the process by which children map a word onto an underlying concept after only one exposure. Toddlers often make errors in using new words. Overextensions occur when a child incorrectly uses a word to describe a wider set of objects or actions than it is meant to…using the word ball for anything round. Underextensions occur when a child incorrectly uses a word to describe a narrower set of objects or actions than it is meant to…using the word doll only to refer to a favorite doll. By the end of the second year, children begin combining words to produce meaningful sentences. These sentences are characterized as telegraphic, because they resemble telegrams, consisting mainly of content words, with articles, prepositions, and other less critical words omitted…ex., “Give doll," Researchers study the language of young children by calculating the MLU (mean length of utterance), the average length of their spoken statements (measured in morphemes). By the end of the third year, children can express complex ideas; however, they continue to make mistakes such as overregularizing…generalizing grammatical rules incorrectly to irregular cases where they do not apply…”he goed home,” for example.

12. Pronunciation Poem I take it you already know Of tough and bough and cough and dough? Others may stumble, but not you On hiccough, thorough, slough and through. Well done! And now you wish, perhaps, To learn of less familiar traps? Beware of heard, a dreadful word That looks like beard and sounds like bird. And dead, it’s said like bed, not bead; For goodness sake, don’t call it deed! Watch out for meat and great and threat, (They rhyme with suite and straight and debt.) A moth is not a moth in mother. Nor both in bother, broth in brother. And here is not a match for there, And dear and fear for bear and pear. And then there’s dose and rose and lose, Just look them up, and goose and choose, And cork and work and card and ward, And font and front and word and sword. And do and go, then thwart and cart. Come, come, I’ve hardly made a start! A dreadful language? Why, man alive! I’d learned to talk it when I was five. And yet, to spell it, the more I’ve tried, I hadn’t learned at fifty-five. T. S. Watt, The Manchester Guardian, June 21, 1954

13. Newspaper headlines One of the best sources of ambiguous phrases Eye drops off shelf Squad helps dog bite victims British left waffles on Falkland Islands Enraged cow injures farmer with axe Teacher strikes idle kids.

14. Bilingualism – p. 323 - 324 In many parts of the world, children are exposed to two of more languages as they grow up. Some children learn one language at home and another in a school setting. Other children learn both languages at home Other children immigrate to a country speaking one language and then learn a second language in school. Bilingualism offers a rich source of information about the organisation and use of the structures and processes of language.

15. Bilingualism Bilingual countries (e.g., Canada, Belgium, Switzerland, and Spain) Home language is not the language used for school and business (e.g., U.S. in parts, South Africa, parts of Russia) Immigrants Studied language in school but speak native language at home Grew up in homes where two languages were used routinely.

16. Bilingual speaker A person who uses two languages that differ in speech sounds, vocabulary and syntax. The bilingual’s native language is referred to as the first language or L1 and the non-native language is the second language or L2. Parallel or sequential acquisition, differences in brain representation (MRI studies)

17. Bilingualism Additive bilingualism An individual acquires proficiency in a second language with no loss in his or her first language. Both languages are associated with respect and prestige. Subtractive bilingualism The new language replaces the first language, more likely with younger immigrant language learners especially if coming from country with lower educational levels.

18. Bilingualism Research findings: Smaller vocabularies in one language, combined vocabularies average Higher scores for middle-class bilingual subjects on cognitive flexibility, analytical reasoning, selective attention, and metalinguistic awareness Slight disadvantage in terms of language processing speed Second languages more easily acquired early in life – Slide 19 Greater acculturation facilitates acquisition Does learning two languages simultaneously cause problems? There is little empirical evidence that learning two languages has a negative effect on language development. Research findings are summarized on this slide. Acculturation is the degree to which a person is socially and psychologically integrated into a new culture.Does learning two languages simultaneously cause problems? There is little empirical evidence that learning two languages has a negative effect on language development. Research findings are summarized on this slide. Acculturation is the degree to which a person is socially and psychologically integrated into a new culture.

20. Can Animals Develop Language? Dolphins, sea lions, parrots, chimpanzees Vocal apparatus issue American Sign Language Allen and Beatrice Gardner (1969) Chimpanzee - Washoe 160 word vocabulary Sue Savage-Rumbaugh research – p. 307 Bonobo chimpanzee – Kanzi – p. 324 Symbols Receptive language – 72% of 660 requests Researchers have attempted to teach language to a variety of animals, but the most success has been shown with chimpanzees. One of the biggest problems in teaching human language to non-human animals is that the vocal apparatus is not the same. Researchers, therefore, began to use ASL with chimpanzees. The Gardners were successful at teaching a chimpanzee, Washoe, to use ASL. In fact, Washoe developed a vocabulary of about 160 words, combining them into simple sentences, but showing little evidence of mastering the rules of language. Sue Savage-Rumbaugh and colleagues have reported striking advances with the bonobo pygmy chimpanzees. These bonobos have been trained to use geometric symbols that represent words on a computer-monitored keyboard. Kanzi, the star pupil, has taught his younger sister much that he has learned about this system. Kanzi has acquired hundreds of words and has used them in thousands of combinations, many apparently spontaneous and rule governed. In addition, his receptive language appears much more developed, as he was able to carry out 72% of 660 spoken requests such as “Pour the Coke in the lemonade." Still, chimps by no means approach the language facility of a human toddler, suggesting an evolutionary basis for human language development.Researchers have attempted to teach language to a variety of animals, but the most success has been shown with chimpanzees. One of the biggest problems in teaching human language to non-human animals is that the vocal apparatus is not the same. Researchers, therefore, began to use ASL with chimpanzees. The Gardners were successful at teaching a chimpanzee, Washoe, to use ASL. In fact, Washoe developed a vocabulary of about 160 words, combining them into simple sentences, but showing little evidence of mastering the rules of language. Sue Savage-Rumbaugh and colleagues have reported striking advances with the bonobo pygmy chimpanzees. These bonobos have been trained to use geometric symbols that represent words on a computer-monitored keyboard. Kanzi, the star pupil, has taught his younger sister much that he has learned about this system. Kanzi has acquired hundreds of words and has used them in thousands of combinations, many apparently spontaneous and rule governed. In addition, his receptive language appears much more developed, as he was able to carry out 72% of 660 spoken requests such as “Pour the Coke in the lemonade." Still, chimps by no means approach the language facility of a human toddler, suggesting an evolutionary basis for human language development.

21. Theories of Language Acquisition Behaviorist Skinner learning of specific verbal responses Nativist Chomsky – p. 326 learning the rules of language – centrality of syntax Language Acquisition Device (LAD) Interactionist – Figure 8.4 Cognitive, social communication, and emergentist theories According to Skinner and the behaviorists, children acquire language through conditioning and imitation. Nativist theorists, led by Noam Chomsky, assert that humans have an innate capacity to learn the rules of language, an LAD, which facilitates language development. Interactionist theories hold that biology and experience both make important contributions. Two prominent interactionist theories are the cognitive and social communication theories. Cognitive theory asserts that language development is an important aspect of more general cognitive development, depending, like all development, on both maturation and experience. Social communication theory holds that interpersonal communication has functional value and emphasizes the social context in which language evolves. Emergentist theories hold that neural circuits supporting language are not prewired, but rather emerge gradually in response to learning experiences via incremental changes in connectionist networks.According to Skinner and the behaviorists, children acquire language through conditioning and imitation. Nativist theorists, led by Noam Chomsky, assert that humans have an innate capacity to learn the rules of language, an LAD, which facilitates language development. Interactionist theories hold that biology and experience both make important contributions. Two prominent interactionist theories are the cognitive and social communication theories. Cognitive theory asserts that language development is an important aspect of more general cognitive development, depending, like all development, on both maturation and experience. Social communication theory holds that interpersonal communication has functional value and emphasizes the social context in which language evolves. Emergentist theories hold that neural circuits supporting language are not prewired, but rather emerge gradually in response to learning experiences via incremental changes in connectionist networks.

23. Problem Solving Problem solving is defined as a goal to accomplish, with an initial state and goal state, with obstacles to overcome. Greeno (1978) – three basic classes Problems of inducing structure Discovery of a pattern relating elements of a problem to each other. Series completion and analogy problems, seating guests Problems of arrangement All the elements are given, and the task is to re-arrange them. String problem and Anagrams Often solved through insight Problems of transformation Manipulation of objects or symbols while following certain rules. Hobbits and orcs problem – Figure 8.6 Water jar problem – Figure 8.7, Figure 8.8 Any problem could be in more than one category. Jim Greeno, 1978, proposed that there are 3 basic types of problems: Problems of inducing structure – where people are required to discover relations among numbers, words, symbols, or ideas. Problems of arrangement – where people arrange the parts of a problem in a way that satisfies some criterion. These types of problems are often solved by insight, a sudden discovery of the correct solution following incorrect attempts based primarily on trial and error. Problems of transformation – involve carrying out a sequence of transformations in order to reach a specific goal. Examples of each of these are depicted in the following slides.Jim Greeno, 1978, proposed that there are 3 basic types of problems: Problems of inducing structure – where people are required to discover relations among numbers, words, symbols, or ideas. Problems of arrangement – where people arrange the parts of a problem in a way that satisfies some criterion. These types of problems are often solved by insight, a sudden discovery of the correct solution following incorrect attempts based primarily on trial and error. Problems of transformation – involve carrying out a sequence of transformations in order to reach a specific goal. Examples of each of these are depicted in the following slides.

24. Problem Solving Cycle Problem identification Problem definition and representation Strategy formation: analysis and synthesis; divergent and convergent thinking Organizing information Resource allocation Novices and experts: local planning, initial stage, and solution strategy Monitoring Evaluation Sample problems – Figures 8.5, 8.9, 8.10, 8.11, 8.12 Insight in problem solving

27. Effective Problem Solving Well defined vs. ill defined problems: clear start or end states Barriers to effective problem solving: Irrelevant Information Functional fixedness – Duncker (1945) – Our tendency to perceive the functions of objects as fixed and unchanging. candle problem – Concept check 8.2, p. 335 Mental Set Mental Set is a preference for certain operators (things you can do, actions you can take to solve a problem). Luchins (1942) and the water jar problem: Figure 8.7, Figure 8.8 Einstellung (mechanization of thought) – people kept using a strategy that worked even when a better one was available Unnecessary Constraints – nine dot problem, cheap necklace problem Inadequate mental representations - mutilated checkerboard problem, matchstick problem – Slide 28, Figure 8.10, Bird & train problem – Figure 8.17 Problems vary in the degree to which they are well defined, where the initial state, the goal state, and the constraints are clearly specified; most problems in the real world are ill-defined, that is, one or more elements among the initial state, the goal state, and the constraints are incompletely or unclearly specified. Common barriers to problem solving include getting bogged down in irrelevant information; functional fixedness, which is the tendency to perceive an item only in terms of its most common use; mental set, which exists when people persist in using problem-solving strategies that have worked in the past; and assuming unnecessary constraints on the problem, as in the 9 dots problem and the matchstick problem depicted on the following slides. Problems vary in the degree to which they are well defined, where the initial state, the goal state, and the constraints are clearly specified; most problems in the real world are ill-defined, that is, one or more elements among the initial state, the goal state, and the constraints are incompletely or unclearly specified. Common barriers to problem solving include getting bogged down in irrelevant information; functional fixedness, which is the tendency to perceive an item only in terms of its most common use; mental set, which exists when people persist in using problem-solving strategies that have worked in the past; and assuming unnecessary constraints on the problem, as in the 9 dots problem and the matchstick problem depicted on the following slides.

30. Approaches to Problem Solving Algorithms Systematic trial-and-error Guaranteed solution Heuristics Shortcuts, rule-of-thumb No guaranteed solution Forming subgoals – ends means analysis Working forward Working backward Generate and test Searching for analogies Changing the representation of a problem An algorithm is a methodical, step-by-step procedure for trying all possible alternatives in searching for a solution to a problem…guarantees a solution Heuristics are guiding principles or “rules of thumb” used in solving problems…don’t guarantee success. Formulating subgoals allows one to solve part of the problem, therefore moving toward success. Working backward works well for a problem that has a specified end point. Searching for analogies involves using a solution to a previous problem to solve a current one. The following figure depicts the representation of a problem heuristic.An algorithm is a methodical, step-by-step procedure for trying all possible alternatives in searching for a solution to a problem…guarantees a solution Heuristics are guiding principles or “rules of thumb” used in solving problems…don’t guarantee success. Formulating subgoals allows one to solve part of the problem, therefore moving toward success. Working backward works well for a problem that has a specified end point. Searching for analogies involves using a solution to a previous problem to solve a current one. The following figure depicts the representation of a problem heuristic.

31. Heuristics Means-ends analysis must know what the ends are you seek must know the means available Newell & Simon: representation makes clear the current state, the goal, the differences between them, available operators which can be used to reduce difference. Working forward – experts use this approach more often Working backwards – novices use this approach more often Start by figuring out what the solution to your problem looks like. Move backward from that goal to your current state. This defines a path that leads to goal Generate-test method can be very slow if there are lots of possible solutions

33. Decision Making Kahneman & Tevrsky’s research in decision making The goal of judgment and decision making is to select from among choices or to evaluate opportunities People may be far more likely to make decisions based on biases and heuristics (short-cuts) than earlier decision-making research has suggested These mental shortcuts lighten the cognitive load of making decisions, but they also allow for a much greater chance of error The availability heuristic Estimating the likelihood of events based on their availability in memory. We assume such events are common (e.g. words beginning with letter L v. third letter L). The representativeness heuristic A rule of thumb for judging the likelihood of things in terms of how well they seem to represent, or match particular prototypes. The tendency to ignore base rates – sample of study of “lawyers” and “engineers” The conjunction fallacy – Linda problem – next slide 85% of people rate “h” as more likely than “f” Fallacy in reasoning: probability of “h” cannot strictly be higher than “f”, since “h” is a subset of “f”. Figure 8.18 – another conjunction fallacy problem The availability heuristic involves basing the estimated probability of an event on the ease with which relevant instances come to mind…estimate divorce rate by recalling number of divorces among your friends’ parents. The representativeness heuristic involves basing the estimated probability of an event on how similar it is to the typical prototype of that event…this plays into the tendency to ignore base rates...guessing that Steve is a librarian because he looks like a librarian, even though you know that salespeople greatly outnumber librarians in the population. The conjunction fallacy occurs when people estimate that the odds of two uncertain events happening together are greater than the odds of either event happening alone…this also appears to be due to the powerful nature of the representativeness heuristic. The alternative outcomes effect occurs when peoples’ belief about whether an outcome will occur changes, depending on how alternative outcomes are distributed, even though the summed probability of the alternative outcomes is held constant.The availability heuristic involves basing the estimated probability of an event on the ease with which relevant instances come to mind…estimate divorce rate by recalling number of divorces among your friends’ parents. The representativeness heuristic involves basing the estimated probability of an event on how similar it is to the typical prototype of that event…this plays into the tendency to ignore base rates...guessing that Steve is a librarian because he looks like a librarian, even though you know that salespeople greatly outnumber librarians in the population. The conjunction fallacy occurs when people estimate that the odds of two uncertain events happening together are greater than the odds of either event happening alone…this also appears to be due to the powerful nature of the representativeness heuristic. The alternative outcomes effect occurs when peoples’ belief about whether an outcome will occur changes, depending on how alternative outcomes are distributed, even though the summed probability of the alternative outcomes is held constant.

36. Understanding Pitfalls in Reasoning About Decisions The gambler’s fallacy – random processes of coin flips The law of small numbers – example of births in small versus large hospitals Overestimating the improbable – media events – Table 8.4 – actual mortality rates Confirmation bias and belief perseverance Paying attention to information that confirms one’s own belief. The overconfidence effect and hindsight bias The tendency to overestimate one’s ability to predict the future. Framing – Figure 8.22 How an issue is framed can significantly affect decisions and judgments. Tendency is to choose “gains” over “losses”. The gambler’s fallacy is the belief that the odds of a chance event increase if the event hasn’t occurred recently. The law of small numbers holds that people assume that results based on small samples are representative of the population. Overestimating the improbable describes how people tend to greatly overestimate the likelihood of dramatic, vivid, but infrequent, events that receive heavy media coverage. Confirmation bias is the tendency to seek information that supports one’s decisions and beliefs, while ignoring disconfirming information. Belief perseverance is the tendency to hang onto beliefs in the face of contradictory evidence. The overconfidence effect is the tendency for people to put too much faith in their estimates, beliefs, and decisions, even when they should know better. Framing refers to how decision issues are posed or how choices are structured. People often allow a decision to be shaped by context or by the language in which it is presented.The gambler’s fallacy is the belief that the odds of a chance event increase if the event hasn’t occurred recently. The law of small numbers holds that people assume that results based on small samples are representative of the population. Overestimating the improbable describes how people tend to greatly overestimate the likelihood of dramatic, vivid, but infrequent, events that receive heavy media coverage. Confirmation bias is the tendency to seek information that supports one’s decisions and beliefs, while ignoring disconfirming information. Belief perseverance is the tendency to hang onto beliefs in the face of contradictory evidence. The overconfidence effect is the tendency for people to put too much faith in their estimates, beliefs, and decisions, even when they should know better. Framing refers to how decision issues are posed or how choices are structured. People often allow a decision to be shaped by context or by the language in which it is presented.

38. Framing Effects 600 people are at risk of dying of a particular disease. Vaccine A could save 200 of these lives. For Vaccine B, there is a .33 likelihood that all 600 people would be saved, but a .66 likelihood that all 600 people will die. Would you choose A or B? (most choose A) 600 people are at risk of dying of a particular disease. If Vaccine C is used, 400 of these people will die. If Vaccine D is used, there is a .33 likelihood that no one will die, but a .66 likelihood that all 600 people will die. Would you choose C or D? (most choose D) Figure 8.22, p. 348

39. Figure 8.20: The framing of questions. This chart shows that Programs A and B are parallel in probability to Programs C and D, but these parallel pairs of alternatives lead subjects to make different choices. Studies show that when choices are framed in terms of possible gains, people prefer the safer plan. However, when choices are framed in terms of losses, people are more willing to take a gamble.Figure 8.20: The framing of questions. This chart shows that Programs A and B are parallel in probability to Programs C and D, but these parallel pairs of alternatives lead subjects to make different choices. Studies show that when choices are framed in terms of possible gains, people prefer the safer plan. However, when choices are framed in terms of losses, people are more willing to take a gamble.

40. Evolutionary Analyses: Flaws in Decision Making and Fast and Frugal Heuristics Cosmides and Tooby (1996) Unrealistic standard of rationality Decision making evolved to handle real-world adaptive problems Problem solving research based on contrived, artificial problems Gigerenzer (2000) Quick and dirty heuristics Less than perfect but adaptive While research shows that human decision making is replete with bias and error, evolutionary psychologists argue that this is due to the laboratory tasks used to measure it. They argue that traditional decision research has imposed an unrealistic standard in that questions are asked in ways that have nothing to do with the adaptive problems that humans have evolved to solve. Cosmides and Tooby argue that human decision making emerged to solve adaptive problems such as finding food, shelter, and mates and dealing with allies and enemies. Consistent with this theory, many reasoning errors disappear when problems are presented in ways that resemble the type of input humans would have processed in ancient times. Gigerenzer (2000) argues that humans do not have the time, resources, or capacities to gather all information, consider all alternatives, calculate all probabilities and risks, and then make the statistically optimal decision. Instead, they use the fast and frugal route, making quick, one-reason decisions which yield inferences that are often just as accurate as much more elaborate and time-consuming strategies.While research shows that human decision making is replete with bias and error, evolutionary psychologists argue that this is due to the laboratory tasks used to measure it. They argue that traditional decision research has imposed an unrealistic standard in that questions are asked in ways that have nothing to do with the adaptive problems that humans have evolved to solve. Cosmides and Tooby argue that human decision making emerged to solve adaptive problems such as finding food, shelter, and mates and dealing with allies and enemies. Consistent with this theory, many reasoning errors disappear when problems are presented in ways that resemble the type of input humans would have processed in ancient times. Gigerenzer (2000) argues that humans do not have the time, resources, or capacities to gather all information, consider all alternatives, calculate all probabilities and risks, and then make the statistically optimal decision. Instead, they use the fast and frugal route, making quick, one-reason decisions which yield inferences that are often just as accurate as much more elaborate and time-consuming strategies.