The Biological Level of Analysis

1. The Biological Level of Analysis

2. Levelsof Analysis

3. BIO LOA – First lessons • Examine the essential focus of the biological psychology. • Understand the IB Syllabus for the bio topic and consider the emphasis on ‘learning outcomes’ • Understand how case studies and technological advances have contributed to the development of the biological LOA • Outline the principles that define the biological level of analysis • Explain the effects of neurotransmitters on human behavior • Discuss how the biological LOA can be seen as reductionist

4. Topics • The background, principles of the Biological LOA & reductionism • Neurons & Neurotransmission • Localization of function in the brain • The stress response system (effects of hormones on behavior, environmental effects on physiological processes & the interaction between cognition & physiology) • Genetics & behavior – the influence of genetic inheritance, evolutionary explanations & ethical considerations

5. The IB syllabus:

6. Questions to check your understanding: • Why could the biological LOA be called the most basic LOA? • Name two discoveries that demonstrate that ‘all that is psychological is first physical’ • What has the development of brain imaging technologies allowed biological psychologists to do? • What has advancements in pharmacology allowed the medical profession to do? • What is the human genome project? What will it allow biological psychologists to do? • What do behavioral geneticists study?

7. The IB syllabus

9. The Biological LOA Focus 1 • The mind has a physiological basis • ‘All that is psychological is first physical’ • Different views of this assumption include • The view that the brain IS the mind (Watson and Domasio) • Conscious awareness is not located in a particular area of the brain so the mind cannot be purely physical. (Penfield and Eccles) • The mind is a sense of self made up of a product of physiological processes. Focus 2 • Heredity is the means through which characteristics are passed down. • Main questions asked in the perspective • What is the relationship between mind and body? • What is the EXTENT of the influence of genes on humans?

10. Understanding the physiological basis of behavior One of the most perplexing issues in psychology is understanding the relationship between the mind and the brain. We are all have conscious awareness of our surroundings, and also of ourselves – this is the experience normally described as the mind But what is the basis of the mind? Is it the expression of a non-physical soul, or is it a product of physical processes within our body? Psychologists and philosophers have been pondering this for centuries William James regarded explaining the nature of consciousness as one of the most challenging questions for psychology to answer. Today more than 100 years later, the challenge still exists • Key question for biological psychologists: • What is the relationship between structure and function? • What influence do genes have on human behavior and thought?

11. 3, 2, 1- The Mind 3 important ideas you have learned about the mind since August. 2 things you would like to know more about 1 thing that really frustrates about ‘looking for the mind’

12. Looking for the mind…. One of the most perplexing issues in psychology is the relationship between mind and the body What is the basis of the mind? Think about this question and write some responses below The mind is…… The body is…… Are the mind and body separate or are they united?

13. Looking for the mind…. The mind is inner subjective experience of awareness The body is a physical being – including what many people feel is the basis of the mind – the brain Are the mind and body separate or are they united? Phantom limb - http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=hlQZmNlPdHQ

14. Case studies to show mind body connection • Develop an understanding of the development of the Biological LOA • Examine two case studies from the biological LOA – Sacks & Phineas Gage- Brain teaching modules 25

15. Phineas Gage and his tamping iron,his "constant companion during the remainder of his life." Damasio (1994)

16. A controversial case – much debate ad many different interpretations – often inaccurate and exaggerated The case of Phineas Gage Harlow (1868) "the American crowbar case" • One of the best known clinical cases involved the dramatic injury to an unfortunate railroad worker. • Whilst placing an explosive charge, a spark of metal on a rock set off the charge, sending a long tamping rod flying upwards. • The rod entered Gage’s head just below the left eye and exited from the top of his scull (1848). • Remarkably – Gage survived – and his behavior apparently changed dramatically – he used to be likeable and responsible, then he was prone to terrible fits of temper. • Sadly he spent his remaining years wondering around the US, displaying the hole in his scull that had brought him such grief • – although recent images show him proudly holding the tamping iron which inflicted the controversial injury - consistent with the ‘social recovery hypothesis’ (Macmillan, 1998) – perhaps the severest mental changes where short-lived – evidence of ‘neural plasticity’ • His story has been a source of endless fascination – it appears that the rod extensively damaged the association areas (which produce a meaningful perceptual experience of the world) of the left frontal lobe • Activity: Write a few sentences to reflect on the video (cog neuro 4.15) and explain how these case study may indicate that behavior and thought have a physiological basis.

17. The man who mistook his wife for a hat • Visual agnosia • Can’t name, but can describe objects • Can’t make sense of what he his seeing • Able to adapt and compensate • Mind and brain interlinked

18. The man who mistook his wife for a hat (Sacks, 1985) P, a music teacher, whose associates have questioned his perception, is referred by his ophthalmologist to the neurologist Oliver Sacks. During the first office visit, Sacks notices that P. faces him with his ears, not his eyes. His gaze seems unnatural, darting and fixating on the doctor's features one at a time. At the end of the interview, at which his wife is present, P. appears to grasp his wife's head and try to lift it off and put it on his own head. "He had . . . mistaken his wife for a hat!" She gave no sign that anything odd had happened. During the second interview, at P.'s home, P. is unable to recognize the rose in Sacks' lapel, describing it as "a convoluted red form with a linear green attachment." He is encouraged to speculate on what it might be, and guesses it could be a flower. When he smells it, he comes to life and knows it. The wife explains that P. functions by making little songs about what he is doing--dressing, washing or eating. If the song is interrupted he simply stops, till he finds a sensory clue on how to proceed. This singing method of compensating allows P. to function undetected in his professional and personal life. He remains unaware that he has a problem. Sacks chooses not to disturb his ignorant bliss with a diagnosis. Though his disease (never diagnosed but hypothesized as a tumor or degeneration of the visual cortex) advances, P. lives and works in apparent normalcy to the end of his days. Explain the man’s condition, how is our awareness related to what our senses tell us?

19. Two philosophical traditions of thought: Dualism and Materialism Dualism Dualists claim that mind and matter are two separate categories. In particular, mind-body dualism claims that neither the mind nor matter can be reduced to each other in any way. Materialism The philosophy of materialism holds that the only thing that can be truly proven to exist is matter. Fundamentally, all things are composed of material and all phenomena (including consciousness) are the result of material interactions; therefore, matter is the only substance. Monism Views mind and matter as being ultimately the same kind of thing. Which school of thought do you think that psychologists from the biological LOA come from? Explain your answer

20. The background of the Biological LOA • Reading – History of the Bio LOA • Worksheet – BIO LOA Read Crane 43

21. The Principles that define the biological LOA

22. The Principles that define the biological LOA • Cognitions, emotions and behaviours are products of the anatomy and physiology of our nervous and endocrine systems 2) Patterns of behaviour can be inherited 3) Animal research may inform our understanding of human behaviour;

23. The principles of the biological LOA • Write three bullet points on each of the key principles of the Biological LOA • Use Crane 38 & 39

24. The Principles that define the biological LOA 1) Cognitions, emotions and behaviours are products of the anatomy and physiology of our nervous and endocrine systems “All behavior that is psychological is at first physiological” – since the mind appears to reside in the brain, all thoughts, feelings and behaviors ultimately have a physical/biological cause (there is a biological basis to behavior). However, this relationship can be seen as bi-directional i.e. biology can affect cognition and cognition can affect biology. There is a localization of function – specific functions are associated with specific areas of the brain. There are also ‘biological correlates of behavior’ which suggests that its possible to find a link between a specific biological factor (e.g. a hormone) and a behavior. 2) Patterns of behaviour can be inherited Human genes have evolved over millions of years to adapt physiology and behavior to the environment. Therefore much behavior will have a genetic basis. (This is reflected in the structure of the brain – we share a number of behaviors with lower organisms– e.g. the ‘primitive brain’ or limbic system regulates behavior associated with hunger, thirst, sex and other basic drives, and some psychological disorders appear to have a genetic basis) 3) Animal research may inform our understanding of human behaviour; Psychology should investigate the brain, nervous system, endocrine system, neurochemistry and genes and it is also useful to study why human behavior has evolved the way it has this is evolutionary psychology. We can also learn about human behavior from studying animals, since we are evolutionary related to them.

25. Questions to review your learning 1) Before Darwin’s seminal work The origin of the species (1859) how did people view the differences between humans and animals? 2) According to the biological LOA, what is the basis of the mind? 5) In your opinion, are mind and body separate or are they united? Explain your answer. 6) Do you believe that the mind resides inside the brain? Is your view the same or different to biological psychologists? 7) Explain the key principle of the biological LOA that all behavior that is psychological is first physiological 8) Explain the principle of localization of function 9) What does the biological LOA assume about the role of genes in determining behavior? 10) What does the biological LOA assume should be studied by psychologists? 11) What research methodologies are used by researchers from the biological LOA? 12) Do researchers from the biological LOA study animals? Why is this?

26. What about genes ??? We’ve focused on case studies showing the brain as a physiological correlate to certain behaviors. We’ve NOT examined principles 2 & 3. Homework reading touches on this BUT…… we’ll closely examine genes when we study genetics.

27. Two important concepts to consider in the BIO LOA This is key evaluation which can be brought into any questions from this section Reductionism Free Will Determinism

28. Reductionism Definition: Reductionism is an approach to understanding the nature of complex things by reducing them to the interactions of their parts, or to simpler or more fundamental things (e.g. depression is caused buy low serotonin) Think of an analogy in your daily school life which would explain reductionist thinking

29. Read the next slide….. From the slide draw three symbols which would explain reductionism. Label each symbol with a characteristic of reductionism

30. Reductionism is based on ‘Occam's razor’ or ‘Morgan’s law of parsimony’ (parsimony means –’less is better’) This principle states that when explaining any phenomenon (e.g. behavior) the simplest level of explanation is the best - "All other things being equal, the simplest solution is the best.“ E.g. – if the cause of eating disorders can be attributed to genes – then it should be explained in this way The biological LOA emphasizes the role of genes, neurotransmitters and brain structures in determining behavior. This means that the biological LOA is a reductionist one – because it concentrates on the part biological factors play in psychological conditions Has this approach been valuable? – Yes -for example – Its enables the use of the scientific method, and has lead to researchers from the Biological LOA to identify the role of neurotransmitters and genes in mental disorders, (e.g. serotonin levels and depression, and the role genes in the development of eating disorders) as well as the functions of specific structures in the brain. Is taking a reductionist approach always a problem? Not always, – but it often is a problem – most human behaviors involve a higher level cognitive functions (thinking) and social & cultural factors also play an important role in the way we behave, and these are not usually considered by the biological LOA For a full explanation of behavior we need to study all these different levels (cognitive, social& cultural and biological) - this means taking a holistic approach so the reductionist nature of the biological LOA limits it as a LOA

31. Read the next 3 slides • Work in triads • What is free will? What is determinism? • List 3 examples….. • Which one does the bio LOA reflect and why?

32. Free will vs. Determinism

33. Free will & Determinism and the biological LOA • There is a debate about whether we has human beings have ‘free will’ and we are able to make choices which will influence who we are and how we behave, and a “determinist” view which proposes that everything that happens has a definite cause, and it is that cause that determines what happens. • Determinism is the view that, for everything that happens, there is a condition or set of conditions which are the cause for that thing happening.“ (Oakley, 2001) – and in order to study human behavior scientifically, we must study these causes • Free will proposes that we have an ability to chose the actions that we take, so we cannot explain everything by simply studying the causes of processes • Determinism involves the denial of free will – Hard determinism denies free will altogether (free will is the sense that we exercise control over our decisions) there is also Soft Determinism which proposes that in some situations we do have some free will to make decisions (we will look at this when we study the cognitive LOA) • The philosopher David Hume (1734) argued that if an event is determined by something else, then the two events should be highly correlated and should appear in a chronological order (e.g. low serotonin leads to depression) • *The discussion of free will and determinism involves moral accountability (ethics) – if we don’t have free will – then are we still responsible for our actions? • The biological LOA takes the view that behavior is determined by internal, biological processes or systems. This is biological determinism.

34. The biological approach takes the view that behaviour is determined by internal, biological processes or systems. This is biological determinism. Up to a point physiological determinism may be a valid argument because physiological factors provide explanations of behaviour but do they offer a complete explanation? They may be more applicable to non-human animals where learning has less influence on behaviour. Non-human animals also lack selfawareness, which is associated with the concept of “will”. Without selfawareness and consciousness, can you say about an organism that it has a will? One line within the biological approach is genetic determinism claiming that your genetic make-up (e.g. intelligence) is given from birth and cannot be altered. Within socio-biology the genetic make-up of organisms determines ‘natural’ behaviour, e.g. related to biological sex. The natural selection is seen as the result of inherited characteristics that has been naturally selected and passed on to the next generation

35. Questions to check your understanding of free will & determinism 1) Define free will and determinism 2) What does David Hume propose is needed in order for one event to be determined by another? 3) How does ethics come into the discussion of free will and determinism? 4) What is biological determinism? Why might this apply to non human animals more than humans? 5) What is genetic determinism? 6) How is the biological perspective a deterministic one? 7) Explain what biological determinism is 8) Explain what genetic determinism is