The Science of Morality

1. The Science of Morality James A. Van Slyke

2. Philosophical Foundations • Three different domains of Morality • Character • Action • Consequences • Different ethical theories focus on the moral appraisal of one of these domains • Character • Virtue Ethics • Aristotle

3. Philosophical Foundations • Two ways to evaluate action • Deontological – Ethical decisions and actions are based on Rational appraisal • Sentimentalism – Ethical decisions and actions are based on emotional appraisal • Evaluating Consequences • Utilitarianism – ends justifies the means • Jeremy Bentham • John Stuart Mill

4. David Hume (1711-1776) • Sentimentalism • Moral distinctions are not derived from reason, but from Emotion • Our emotions enable us to evaluate the difference between virtue and vice • Emotions provide an objective measure for morality based on a common sentiment towards humanity • Although moral virtue is rare, persons do not act purely out of self-interest

5. Immanuel Kant(1724-1804) Deontological Ethics • Moral principles are based on a rational appraisal • Morality is based on duty • Categorical Imperative • Universal Principles of Conduct • Moral laws are based on rational principles that are universally binding

6. Jeremy Bentham (1748-1832) • Utilitarianism says that the Result or the Consequence of an Act is the real measure of whether it is good or bad. • Utilitarian Calculus • In determining the quantity that may be produced by an action, we evaluate the possible consequences • Those consequences that lead to a greater amount of happiness are good

7. Jonathon Haidt • Julie and Mark are brother and sister. They are traveling together in France on summer vacation from college. One night they are staying alone in a cabin near the beach. They decide that it would be interesting and fun if they tried making love. At the very least it would be a new experience for each of them. Julie was already taking birth control pills, but Mark uses a condom too, just to be safe. They both enjoy making love, but they decide not to do it again. They keep that night as a special secret, which makes them feel even closer to each other. • What do you think about that? Was it OK for them to make love? Morality Story

8. Jonathon Haidt • Social Intuitionist Model • Emotion serves as an intuition that directs our assessment of a moral situation • Moral reasoning follows based on the intuition • Ad hoc explanation based on defending our intuitions • Used to influence the intuitions of others • Thus, one feels revulsion at the idea of incest in the story • Then, seeks to find a way to rationally defend the intuition

9. Trolley Problem

10. Trolley Problem

11. Joshua Greene • Competing Processes Theory • Cognitive and emotional processes compete in moral decision-making • Impersonal • Cognitive (Rational) Processes used in appraisal • Thought of pulling a lever does not activate emotional centers of brain • Personal • Emotional process used in appraisal • Thought of pushing someone more emotionally engaging

12. Marc Hauser • Moral Decision-making based on Moral Module • Similar to Chomsky and Pinker’s view of language module • Instinctive Moral Grammar directs analysis of perceived actions • Most cognitive processes are unconscious and implicit • Moral cognition is largely unconscious • Not developed through instruction • Not dependent upon religious institutions

13. Marc Hauser • Prior to emotional and cognitive moral appraisals • Evaluate actions based on three categories • Permissible • Obligatory • Forbidden • Color our perceptions • Constrain options for moral decision • Moral appraisal occurs within specific cultures, but follows the grammar set by the moral module

14. Exemplars • Wesley Autry • Put his life in jeopardy to save a stranger • Jumped onto subway train tracks to cover a person in danger • Later replied, “I don’t feel like I did something spectacular; I just saw someone who needed help. I did what I felt was right.”

15. Exemplars • The Story of Wesley Autry

16. Exemplars • Holocaust Rescuers • Risked their own life to save Jewish persons during the holocaust. • When asked, many rescuers didn’t feel like they did anything extraordinary • They could not of imagined doing anything different

17. What is a Exemplar? • Common definitions • Someone who embodies certain admirable traits • Serves as a point of reference • By observing an exemplary person, one learns how to exercise a particular trait • For Virtuous exemplars • These persons have characteristics that are essential for the moral life • These persons are examples for how to behave morally

18. Aristotle and Virtue Ethics • Eudaimonia – happiness or the good life • Virtues are those those aspects of character that lead to a good life • Virtues flow naturally from the character of moral exemplars • Exemplars are persons who have developed certain habits that embody moral virtues

19. Aristotle and Virtue Ethics • Acquiring virtue is not like other intellectual pursuits • Requires “phronesis” or practical wisdom • Virtues are acquired like the skills of a master craftsman • More of an unconscious process

20. Contemporary Virtue Ethics: Linda Zagzebski • Exemplars are the starting point for virtue ethics • Concrete example of virtue to begin the development of conceptual definitions • Exemplars are distinguished by their exercise of practical reason or phronesis • Exemplars have the right motive, at the right time

21. Contemporary Virtue Ethics: Linda Zagzebski • Motives are emotional states that lead to correct moral actions • Each emotion has a thick concept that represents the intentional object of the emotional state • Emotions enable a person to see a situation from a particular moral perspective • Their emotions ready them for action

22. Contemporary Virtue Ethics: Linda Zagzebski • Emotions form the basic dispositions of a person’s character • Enduring moral traits • Produces reliability and consistency in moral character despite the context • Developmental perspective on acquiring virtue