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Middle Ages (Medieval Period)The Middle Ages date from the fall of the Western Roman Empire, from the 5th c., to the 15th c. The Middle Ages are also known as the medieval period, from the Latin words medium (middle) and aevum (age). There was a rich variety of periods and cultures in the Middle Ages, including Byzantine (330-1453); Carolingian (8th- late 9th); Ottonian (c.900-1050); Romanesque (1050-1200); and Gothic (late 12th-15th).The population of Europe is estimated to have reached a low point of about 18 million in 650, doubling by 1000, and reaching over 70 million in 1340, just before the Black Death. In 1450 it was still only 50 million. (Fall of Western Roman Empire Sept 4, 476; Fall of Constantinople on May 29, 1453)
Middle AgesByzantine art was influenced by elements of Greek and Roman art (such as an emphasis on idealizing figures). It is a style frequently identified with early Christianity, although the latter actually developed in a range of styles in Europe while it remained essentially the same in the East for hundreds of years. Examples of Byzantine art survive in Ravenna in Italy, the Balkans, Russia, Asian minor, etc. Artists created wall paintings, illuminated manuscripts, panel paintings,and above all, mosaics.
Middle AgesGolden ages: 6th-7th; 9th-12th; 13th-15th. The two most important elements in Byzantine architecture are the Roman brick vault and the dome. The glory of Byzantine art expressed itself in mosaic, made of tinted glass and gold foil. Germanic Art carving intricate devotional objectsViking Art craftsmanship, copying & illustratingHiberno-Saxon Art religious texts (manuscripts)Carolingian Art: elaborate architectural sculpturesOttonian Art: lavish objects of metal, glass, andprecious stones.
哥贝克力遗址可能是伊甸园的一座神殿。考古学家已经挖出45块T型巨石，他们透过仪器勘测确信，至少还有数百个巨石尚待挖掘，距今至少有12000年的历史。（英国巨石阵3000BC，金字塔2500BC）。它显示土耳其该地区古老的狩猎采集生活远比我们想象的要先进。 主要雕刻有野猪、野鸭、巨蛇、小龙虾或者狮子、狩猎和娱乐的场面。石头上的雕刻图样和考古遗迹显示这里曾经是富饶的田园式地区。鱼儿在河里游来游去，野鸟到处都是；翠绿的牧场周围是葱葱树木和野果树。大约在1万年前，库尔德沙漠是一个“天堂般的地方”。是什么破坏了这种美丽宜人的环境？答案是人。因为我们开始耕作，我们改变了土地和气候。树木被砍伐，土壤日趋贫瘠；耕作和收割让土地遭到腐蚀和裸露。曾经美不胜收无比惬意的绿洲变成了荒芜之地。所以，天堂没了，亚当被迫离开他美丽的伊甸园，“回到他所自出之土”——《圣经》中写道。
很多哥贝克力巨石上雕刻着诡异、精细的图样，如爬虫类动物 考古学家克劳斯·施密特在哥贝克力遗址雕纹旁摆造型 有很多历史证据显示，《圣经》的作者们在谈论伊甸园的时候的确描述了库尔德土耳其的这个角落。 《创世纪》中描述伊甸园位于亚述西部。一点没错，这就是哥贝克力庙的位置。同样《圣经》中的伊甸园附近有4条河，包括底格里斯河和幼发拉底河。哥贝克力遗址正是处于这4条河中的2条之间。古代亚述的课本中提到过“伯伊但”小邦——伊甸园的一处，这个小帝国距离哥贝克力遗址50英里。《旧约》中记载“在斯拉萨的伊甸园的儿童”，斯拉萨是叙利亚北边的一个小镇，与哥贝克力遗址相近。 伊甸园这个词来自闪族语的“平原”，哥贝克力遗址位于哈伦平原。因此，当你把所有这些拼凑一起后会发现这一证据很有说服力。哥贝克力遗址实际上是“伊甸园的一座神殿”，由我们悠闲快乐的祖先建成，他们有时间研习艺术、建筑和复杂的典礼仪式，但是，后来从从事农业活动的苦和累毁掉了他们的生活方式，毁掉了他们的天堂。这是一个精彩而有趣的推论，只是它有一个灾难性结尾。因为天堂的毁灭似乎对人类心里产生了一种陌生而阴郁的效果。
Gallery and loculi of the Catacomb of Saint Callixtus, Rome, second century. Extensive underground galleries on five levels, the ancient burial place of the first popes.
--200 first graves dug --313 tolerance was granted to Christians, the use of catacombs declined. --400 the Church returned to bury exclusively above ground. --400-800 catacombs sacked and damaged by Goths and Longobards. --800 the Pope ordered to remove the relics of the martyrs and the saints to the city churches for security reasons, the catacombs were no longer visited. --1600 rediscovered by Antonio Bosio. 1850 explored by Giovanni Battista de Rossi. --1929 as a part of the Lateran Treaty the Christian catacombs became Vatican territory Tomb of Flavii, Rome. General view of the main gallery of the catacomb, decorated with simple, idyllic, and sacred wall paintings.
Christian Roman epitaph of Atimetus from the catacombs of St. Sebastian on the Via Appia, Rome. Inscription flanked by Christian symbols, an anchor and a fish.
Eucharistic fish and bread. Christian mosaic. Catacomb of St. Callixtus, Rome.
Catacomb of Domitilla, Rome: Christ and the 12 Apostles. Christ and the Christian as a philosopher is an important theme in Early Christian art. For example in this catacomb painting Christ as the philosopher is flanked by his disciples much like a representation of Socrates surrounded by his students.
Teacher and Pupils, Orant, and Woman and Child, wall painting in a lunette, Crypt of the veiled lady, Catacomb of Priscilla, Rome, 3rd century CE. The veiled female orant dominates the room. She is flanked by images of teacher-philosopherwith pupils on the left and a woman holding a child on her lap on the right. Although its context indicates this is a Christian site, its imagery derives from traditional classical themes.
Donna Velata (veiled lady), Catacomb of Priscilla, Rome, 3rd century CE.
Painted Ceiling of a cubiculum in the Catacomb of Sts. Peter and Marcellinus, Rome, early 4th century AD.
Jesus as a kindly shepherd, in the Catacomb of Callixtus in Rome. Mid-3rd century AD. Christ Himself does not appear regularly in this earliest Christian art. He does appear in allegorical guise as we have seen as the Philosopher. One of the most popular guises of Christ in this period was as the Good Shepherd: The "Good Shepherd" as an image of Jesuspersisted in Christian art until about 500 AD.
Examination of an image like this which comes from the Catacomb of Calixtus again raises the issue of mixing Christian and Classical cultures. The Good Shepherd motif certainly calls to mind the Gospel parables of the lost sheep (Luke 15) and of the shepherd who gives his life for his sheep (John 10). Also the shepherd plays an important role in the Old Testament book of Psalms. But the shepherd was also popular as an allegorical figure in classical art and culture. It is significant to note that the style of this painting with its loose impressionistic style and suggestion of landscape space echoes a category of ancient painting called sacral-idyllic landscapes.
Marble sarcophagus relief showing Jonah and the whale, late 3rd c. (Rome: Museo Pio ex Lateranense). Consider why there is this major difference in the subject matter of the earliest Christian art from the later tradition. Also consider why these particular subjects are selected. What do they have in common? An important consideration is the status of Christianity during this pre-Constantinian period. Remember that Christianity was one of the large group of religions that were called mystery religions. As implied by the designation, at the core of the religious experience was an essential body of information that was only open to initiates. The band above the Jonah story from left to right: 1) the Raising of Lazarus; 2) Moses strikes the rock to nourish the thirsting Israelites in the desert; 3) Peter escapes from prison (uncertain); 4) the Good Shepherd guarding his flocks before a tiny building; 5) at sleeping Jonah’s feet is a tiny box floating in the water with a figure releasing a dove --- the story of Noah and the ark; 6) on the far right edge of the sarcophagus is a rustic fisherman casts forth his line, the familiar image of Christ as the fisher of man’s soul.
Jonah Cast Up (the other piece is Jonah Swallowed) The two belong to a group from the eastern Mediterranean, probably Asia Minor, 3rd century. Marble, 51.6 x 40.6 cm. The Cleveland Museum of Art. OH
A striking contrast beteen pre-Constantinian and later Christian art is in the selection of subject matter. We find only very rarely images of the life of Christ. The standard infancy and passion scenes of Christ that we take for granted in Christian art are virtually non-existent in the earliest Christian art. We do find images like Christ performing the miracle of the loaves and fishes or Christ curing the paralytic. The typical subject matter in the earliest Christian sculpture and painting are miracle stories like Jonah and the Sea Monster. Sarcophagus with Philosopher, orant, and Old and New Testament scenes, c. 270. Marble, 23 ¼” x 86”. Santa Maria Antiqua, Rome.
Paul's dress, the scroll in his hands, and the container with more scrolls at his feet, all identify Paul as a philosopher. A third century sarcophagus or tomb now in the church of Sta. Maria Antiqua has at its center a representation of a seated man holding a scroll and a standing woman. This is clearly based on the Classical formula of the philosopher and his muse. A sixth manuscript made in Constantinople known as the Vienna Dioscorides includes miniatures showing Dioscorides, a first century Greek physician and compiler of this medical encylopedia, accompanied by muses.
The gesture of the arm over the head is a formula derived from Greek Art for representing sleep. A Hellenistic sleeping Ariadne figure demonstrates the ancestry of this pose.
The formulas for representing figures in the earliest Christian art were clearly derived from the conventions of Classical art. Compare for example the representation of Jonah sleeping under the gourd to a reclining figure from a mythological sarcophagus as shown here.
Sarcophagus with Scenes from the Passion of Christ(probably from the Catacomb of Domitilla), mid-4th century A.D. Museo Pio Christiano (171/Inv. #31525), Vatican, Rome From left: Christ carrying the Cross; Christ crowned with Thorns (or Laurel?)；Cross with Chi-Rho, laurel wreath, and guards at the tomb； Christ with Roman guard before Pilate；Judgment of Pilate. Alpha (A) is the first letter of the Greek alphabet and omega (ω) is the last one. They signify God as the beginning and end of all things. This symbolic device was popular from Early Christian times through the Middle Ages. Alpha and omega often flank the abbreviation IX or XP. The initials I and X are the first letters of Jesus and Christ in Greek. The initials XP are known as chi rho and were the first two letters of the word Christos, These emblems are sometimes enclosed by a circle.
"Good Shepherd" Sarcophagus: sculpted relief showing three shepherds and grape harvest, late 4th century A.D. Museo Pio Christiano (191/Inv. # 31554), Vatican, Rome
Detail of sculpted relief showing shepherd carrying sheep and grape harvest
A major topic of consideration will be the development of Christian church architecture. It is important to understand that there was a profound change in conception of the Christian church after Constantine's patronage of Christianity. Christian buildings before Constantine were based on typical Roman domestic architecture. This is best exemplified by a drawing of the remains of a Christian meeting house in Dura Europos.
Archaeologists have shown that this traditional Roman house centered around an open court or atrium was built around the year 200 A.D. Around 230 the building was modified to meet the needs of the local Christian community. These changes included the elimination of a wall to form a larger oblong space to accomodate the liturgical celebrations of the community. The most significant change was the modification of a room to become a room to celebrate the sacrament of Baptism. Changes included the addition of a tub along one wall and the decoration of the walls with murals echoing the symbolism of Baptism.
Interior Reconstruction: Old St. Peter's, c. 320-27 CE Rome, S. Paul's Basilica, view of nave
The Aula Palatina, the great audience hall of Diocletian. Probalby the best preserved Roman basilica in existence, the interior is a single, unbroken space without aisles. Dates from the early 4th century A.D., as do many of the monuments at Trier, Germany.
Aula Palatina (basilica-like audience hall), Trier, Germany, early 4th c. It was part of a new palace complex built by Constantine. Interior of basilica showing apse area. 59 x 29 m
Rome, Santa Sabina, carved wooden doors dating for the later 4th century, includes on of the earliest crucifixion scenes extant. Rome, Sta. Sabina door panels: Left: Jesus' Miracles Right: Moses
Hypothetical reconstruction of Holy Sepulchre, the site of Crucifixion, Jerusalem. During Costantine’s reign, it was the most hallowed martyria for pilgrimages. Tradition has it that the empress dowager Helena, C’s mother, made an extensive pilgrimage to Palestine about 326 and had memorials and churches erected over these holy places. She had excavated the ground where the very wood of the True Cross was found. Also Helena ordered structures to be built commemorating the place of Christ’s Ascension (Mount of Olives), the ground where he taught the disciples at Mambre, and the grotto of his birth in Bethlehem. A large basilica, “more beautiful than any on earth,” was erected over the place where the relics of the True Cross were discovered.
Santa Costanza: exterior, view from NW., ca.350 A.D. Rome, Italy.
Site Plan: Santa Costanza, Rome, c. 338-50 CE Plan and Section: Santa Costanza
Interior, Sta. Costanza, Rome. c. 350 A.D.
Detail of vault mosaic in the ambulatory of Santa Costanza, Rome, ca. 337-351.
Mosaic: Christ as Sol Invictus (datial of a vault) Mausoleum of the Julii, Rome, late 3rd cen. CE
