Moving Beyond Limited Effects Theory - 1950 to 1980

1. Moving Beyond Limited Effects Theory - 1950 to 1980 Functionalism and Children

2. The Cold War Era 1950 to 1980 • An era in which national security and social stability were central concerns • The US rose to be the dominant superpower but was challenged by the Soviet Union • We wanted strong internal defenses against external threats from Communism • We worried that mass media might undermine our social order and leave us vulnerable to Communism • In the 1950s Joseph McCarthy and the House UnAmerican Activities Committee investigated media with a focus on alleged Communists in Hollywood

3. Facing the Challenge of TV • 1950’s and 1960’s were the “Golden Age” of TV • The number of TV stations and TV sets steadily increased • Critics argued that TV posed many threats: • Threatened to undermine print media and literacy • A generation of passive spectators (couch potatoes) might be created • Serious or high culture might be replaced by a “vast wasteland” of trivial entertainment

4. Facing the Challenge of TV • Critics were especially concerned about the possible effects of TV on children • TV might delay or subvert development of reading skills • Children might spend all of their time being entertained by TV and neglect serious activities and friends

5. Reconsidering Mass Society Theory • Critics blame social problems on media. • But if media could cause problems, can it also solve problems?

6. Move away from grand theory • Towards smaller theories called middle range theories. • These are logically derived and confirmed by empirical research. • Start to see psychologists, other kinds of social scientists apply theories to media functions.

7. The Stanford Studies of TV • Looked at what happens when TV is adopted in communities • Findings were mixed with few clear benefits or harmful effects • Found little evidence that literacy or serious culture was being subverted • Found little evidence that undue passivity was being cultivated

8. A Limited Effects Conclusion • For some children, under some conditions, some television is harmful. For other children under the same conditions, or for the same children under other conditions, it will be beneficial. For most children under most conditions, most television is probably neither particularly harmful nor particularly beneficial (Schramm, Lyle, and Parker, 1961, p. 1)

9. Middle Range Theory • Proposed by Robert Merton in the 1950s • He argued it was a new type of theory that could bridge the gap between macroscopic speculation and microscopic empirical observation • Middle range theory should develop as empirical observations are collected and compiled • Many of the media effects theories developed from 1960 to 1990 can be viewed as middle range theories

10. Middle Range Theory and Functional Analysis • Merton also argued that functional analysis provided a useful way to develop middle range theory • In a functional analysis the study of society begins with observation of the “functions” of social artifacts (like media) • Researchers try to identify and study the purposes or functions served by media in order to create theory. • Functional analysis of media involves assessing what people do with media and the consequences of these actions

11. Functional Analysis • Just looks at how society works together. • Crucial component- this theory is VALUE NEUTRAL. Meaning it doesn’t making value judgments or immediately consider media disruptive. • Why might this be useful?

12. First Functional Theory • First media effects middle range theory using this method was called: • Narcotizing dysfunction- the idea that as news about an issue inundates people, they become apathetic to it, substituting knowing about an issue for action on it. • Does this sound valid?

13. Types of Functions • Manifest Functions = Intended and easily observed consequences • Latent Functions = Unintended and hard to observe consequences

14. Manifest and Latent functions • Stories about organized crime in media. • Media effective at calling attention to societal problems (manifest function) • Instead of motivating people to demand solutions, media coverage narcotized them and made them apathetic (latent dysfunction).

15. Functional Analysis of TV • Manifest Functions: • Entertainment • News and Information • Sociability • Latent Functions: • Narcotizing dysfunction • Parasocial interaction

16. Facebook Functions • Manifest Functions: • Entertainment; pass time • Social Relationships; sociability • News • Latent Functions: • Personal Identity • Parasocial Interaction?

17. Mass Entertainment Theory • A functionalist theory of TV developed by Harold Mendelsohn • TV provides an inexpensive, convenient way for people to satisfy various psychological needs • Entertainment • Pass-time • Forget problems; escape • If TV didn’t satisfy these needs people would find other ways to satisfy them • The negative functions of TV are balanced by positive functions

18. Systems Theory • Alternative to functionalism • System = Set of interrelated parts interlinked so that changes in one part cause changes in other parts • Computer-based media such as the Internet link all of us into networks that are complex systems • Systems theory directs attention away from effects on individuals and toward processes involving many people linked into networks • Systems theory is often concerned about the way in which systems relate to their environment

19. System Models • Interdependent Parts • Self-regulation of the system • Goal-orientation of the system • Open versus Closed Systems • Dynamically Balanced Systems • Second-Order Cybernetic Theory • Potential for transformation

20. Assumptions of Limited Effects Perspective • Empirical social research alone can gradually create useful, middle range theories through using induction • Role of media is expected to be limited • Media usually reinforce the status quo in society • Some functions/dysfunctions for some individuals • US political system is stable and equitable; it will prevail against totalitarian alternatives

21. Drawbacks of Limited Effects Perspective • Too dependent on expensive survey research or artificial experiments to develop useful theories • Doesn’t recognize limitations of surveys and experiments as the basis for knowledge creation • Underestimates the role of media because causality has to be proven • Focuses too much attention on short-term effects and neglects subtle forms of influence that take place over long time periods

22. Consequences of the Limited Effects Paradigm • Displaced Mass Society Theory and its speculative assertions about media • Prioritized empirical observation and encouraged key developments in research methods and data analysis • Provided a basis for efficient management of private media funded by advertising • Justified less regulation of media

23. Focus on Effects of TV Violence • Limited Effects Perspective explained why TV Violence wasn’t a problem • But rising levels of TV violence raised increasing public concerns • Action for Children’s TV • Increasing violence in cities • In 1969 the Surgeon General set up an advisory committee with $1 million to fund research

24. Catharsis Theory • Exposure to TV Violence relieves frustration and reduces aggressiveness • Seymour Feshbach and Robert Singer • Research done in 1961 and 1971 • Exposure to prize fight film • Field experiment done with delinquent boys

25. Social Learning Theory • Violent content teaches whether violence is useful or problematic • Leonard Berkowitz • Identification with violent TV characters • Developed into Social Cognitive Theory

26. Social Cognitive Theory • Alternative to operant conditioning - classic stimulus response learning • Albert Bandura • Modeling = learning actions by observing and copying them in daily life or on TV • Observational Learning • Inhibitory Effects • Disinhibitory Effects • Vicarious Reinforcement

27. What was your family’s attitude toward television when you were growing up? Were there viewing rules for the children in your home? How do you think you will regulate viewing by your children? Why do you think it’s necessary to have rules?

28. Social Learning Theory • How much and what kind of behavior do people learn from media? • Imitation – directly observing behavior and reproducing it. • Imitation relatively rare- most likely occur in those predisposed to aggression. • Identification – imitation that springs from wanting to be and trying to be like an observed model relative to some broader characteristics or qualities.

29. Imitation vs. Identification • Unlikely for people to imitate behaviors in media, but more likely to IDENTIFY with their characters.

30. Can you think of an example of social cognition from the media in your own life? Examples of imitation? Of identification? • Social cognition is basically how people (esp. children) learn from mass media (esp. TV)

31. Aggressive Cues Theory • Leonard Berkowitz • Violent content can “cue” or “prime” aggressive action • Makes it easier to remember aggressive ways to deal with frustrations • Can suggest appropriate or inappropriate targets for aggression

32. Developmental Theory • Stages of Development in Children’s Understanding of TV Content (age 2 to 12) • Attractive color, sound, motion • Focus on specific characters • Focus on scenes; fragmentary understanding of narrative structure - anticipate dramatic action - Confuse fantasy and reality • Understand narratives but not normative or moral context; confuse good and bad • Understand genres and moral context

33. Context of Mediated ViolenceWhat Makes a Difference? • Reward/Punishment for violent actions • Portrayal of Consequences for violent actions • Motives for violent actions = justified or unjustified • Realism of violent action • Humor - reduces seriousness and could increase effects • Identification with media characters • Arousal - Emotionally charged content has more effect

34. What Can Be Concluded about TV Violence? • There are short-term cueing/priming effects • There is some evidence of long-term effects but these may be highly dependent on the interpretations individuals develop • Parents can play an important role in mediating negative effects • Limit TV viewing (or access to videogames) • Discuss the context of violent actions with children • Violence used to achieve good outcomes • Violence by heroic characters • Negative consequences of violence

35. Applying Violence Theories • Talking to Children about Violence in Media • Assess how children are interpreting violence • Discuss how violence is presented in specific programs • Fantasy versus reality • Moral versus immoral • Consequences of violent action

36. Violent Video Games • Can TV violence theories be applied to the study of video games? • Consider the similarities and differences between TV and videogames • Could active involvement in videogames lead to bigger effects • Would realistic videogames produce larger effects?

37. Think back to when you were in your pre- and early-teen years. Which lessons from those days are still with you? Those from school, church, and family or those from media and friends? What are they? MTV reality programs are increasingly viewed by teens. Could those programs affect how teens view themselves or the opposite sex? Could expectations about social relationships be affected?

38. Briefly list and explain the essential elements of a systems model. Now describe your peer group as a system. What are its interrelated elements? What are its goals? How does the system help insure the meeting of those goals?

39. Can you speculate on possible long-term social and cultural problems that might result from the adultification of children? What do you think about cosmetics parties for 8 year old girls? How old should girls be before they use cosmetics routinely? When should boys start worrying about muscle-building?

40. Do you agree with functionalists who argue that the negative latent functions are “balanced” by positive manifest functions? What about the consequences of adultification of children? Could those be offset by positive things that media do for children such as the entertainment they get from watching TV?