Work Discretion, Job Crafting and Turnover in Early Care and Education Programs

Work Discretion, Job Crafting and Turnover in Early Care and Education Programs Eileen Appelbaum Rutgers, The State University of New Jersey eappelba@rci.rutgers.edu ESRC Workshop on Childcare/Eldercare University of Manchester February 26, 2007

Research Team • Eileen Appelbaum Rutgers University, 391 George Street, New Brunswick, NJ 08901, 732-932-4614, eappelba@rci.rutgers.edu • Sherry Cleary, NYC Early Childhood Professional Development Institute, The City University of New York, 101 W 31st Street, NY, NY 10001, 646-344-7248, sherry.cleary@mail.cuny.edu • Brenda Ghitulescu Rochester Institute of Technology, 811 Northumberland Way Monmouth Junction, NJ 08852, 732-438-1923, brenda_ghitulescu@yahoo.com • Christie Hudson, School of Social Work, University of Pittsburgh, 339C Mervis Hall, Pittsburgh PA 15260, 412-624-7812, chudson@pitt.edu • Deb Lancaster, Rutgers University Graduate School of Education, 391 George St., 3rd floor, New Brunswick, NJ 08901, 732-572 -971, lancaster@smlr.rutgers.edu • Carrie Leana, Professor of Business and Public Affairs, University of Pittsburgh, 342 Mervis Hall, Pittsburgh PA 15260, 412-648-1674, leana@pitt.edu • Anushri Rawat, Katz Graduate School of Business, 329 Mervis Hall, Pittsburgh, PA 15260, 412-648-1622, arawat@katz.pitt.edu • Sharon Ryan, Rutgers University Graduate School of Education, 10 Seminary Place, New Brunswick, NJ 08901, 732-932-7496, sr247@rci.rutgers.edu • Karen White, Rutgers University CWW, 391 George Street, New Brunswick, NJ 08901, 732-932-4614, kswhite@rci.rutgers.edu

Research Strategy and Methods Insights re: practice, theory construction, hypothesis development Sense making [2], [3] – (dis)confirm using quant methods, survey analysis Sense making [1] via intensive case studies – qual & quant methods Consolidate theory, identify new issues Literature: thin, mainly descriptive Compelling Problem HR management— role & contribution Source: Australian Graduate School of Management

Compelling Problem • Greater stability of childcare workforce => • Better educational/developmental outcomes for children • Especially those in low-income families • Or children otherwise at risk for low performance • Yet, staff turnover among childcare workers is very high – est. 26-41% in childcare centers • Due to low wages and benefits • May also be related to how work is organized • Differs from other low-wage, low-status work • Jobs can be rewarding • But are they?

What We Know/Don’t Know About Childcare Work • Know: characteristics of the jobs of childcare teacher, aide • Low pay, Low status • High child-to-staff ratios • High employee discretion • High turnover • Opportunities for discretion (job crafting) • Don’t know: • Work process in ECE • How discretion is enacted as workers craft their jobs • Effects of job crafting on quality of care • Effects of job crafting on job sat and commitment

Differs from Other Low-Wage, Low-Status Work • Childcare workers • Engage in long-term relationships with children and their parents • Experience great combined demands: physical, emotional, and intellectual • Exercise greater autonomy and individual judgment • Not as rigidly monitored • Have opportunities for “job crafting” – imbue job with meaning • May have greater control over work hours, schedules

Differs from Other Low-Wage, Low-Status Work • Childcare work • Has large economic impact • Lays foundation for children’s subsequent educational achievement, motivation, social development • Provides support for working parents • Yet, little is known about the actual work process in early care and education (ECE)

What We Don’t Know About Early Care and Education Work • What is the actual work that childcare workers perform? • Physically? Emotionally? Intellectually? • How much discretion do workers have in different provider settings? • Why do workers stay in these low paying, low status jobs? • How do they imbue their jobs with meaning and motivation (role of job crafting)? • How does job crafting affect • Turnover, absenteeism, stress? • Quality of care and outcomes for children? • How can the use of discretion to achieve positive outcomes be promoted?

Intensive Case Studies • Two research teams • Rutgers University – New Jersey • University of Pittsburgh – Pennsylvania • Each team includes experts in management practices/work organization & in early childhood education/pre-K teacher preparation • Comparison of states • NJ ranks near the top in U.S. in terms of access to pre-K, quality of teacher prep • PA ranks near the bottom • Purpose of the case studies • Develop interview Q for Program/Center Director • Develop survey instrument for teacher/aide • NJ team carried out open-ended interviews with director, 2 teachers, 2 aides/assistant teacher at 13 sites • PA team carried out focus groups with directors, teachers, aides/assistant teachers

Theory Construction & Hypothesis Development Model Linking Work Structures, Processes, and Outcomes for Employees, Centers and Children Work Context: 1. Structure ( e.g., pay, benefits, subsidies, teacher/child ratios) 2. Process (e.g., workplace policies and practices; center leadership; educational opportunities) 3. Individual Flex (e.g., work schedule, tasks) Job Crafting: Changing the boundaries and conditions of the job 1. Tasks: how work is conceptualized and carried out 2. Relationships: how and with whom one interacts 3. Meaning: how one ascribes meaning and significance to one’s work Work Outcomes: 1. Archival Data a. absenteeism b. turnover c. performance/ quality (ECCR) 2. Survey Data a. motivation b. job satisfaction c. intention to turnover d. stress/burnout

Actors/Beneficiaries/Outcomes of Job Crafting

Scales Used in Survey – Teachers & Aides Individual Job Crafting –Task • F2. How often do you ever change the classroom schedule on your own? (For example: change when you take the children outside or when you do certain activities) • □ Never If Never, Go to #F4 • □ About once a month or less • □ A few times a month • □ About once a week • □ A few times a week • □ Every day • F3. How often do you change your classroom schedule on your own to reduce wasted time? • □ Never • □ About once a month or less • □ A few times a month • □ About once a week • □ A few times a week • □ Every day

Scales Used in Survey – Teachers & Aides Individual Job Crafting –Task • F4. We are interested in the day-to-day decisions you make in doing your job. How often you do any of the following? • Introduce new approaches on your own to improve your work in the classroom  • Change minor work procedures that you think are not productive (such as lunch time or transition routines)  Change the way you do your job to make it easier for yourself  • Rearrange equipment or furniture in the play areas of your classroom • Organize special events in your classroom (such as celebrating a child’s birthday, etc.) • Purchase materials with your own money for the classroom • Bring in other materials from home for the classroom (such as empty jars and egg cartons)  Adapted from Amy Wrzeniewski’s 2005 job crafting scale, unpublished

Scales Used in Survey – Teachers & Aides Individual Job Crafting –Task • F5. Sometimes the work done by teachers and assistants/aides doesn’t involve working with children or being in a classroom. How often do you do each of the following? a. Spend time advising or encouraging a child’s parents on issues that affect the family (such as custody disputes between parents) b. Help the center director to solve unexpected work-related problems c. Work outside of normal working hours (such as work during breaks, stay late, take work home, etc.) d. Volunteer to work on special projects or committees

Scales Used in Survey – Teachers & Aides Job Crafting – Relational/Communication • G1. How often do you talk to each of the following groups of people in your center about work related issues? • (other) Assistants/Aides • (other) Teachers • Director • Other Professionals (social workers, nurses, etc.) • Volunteers

Scales Used in Survey – Teachers & Aides Job Crafting – Relational/Communication • G2. For each of the following issues, please answer who are you most likely to talk to about it. • A discipline problem with a child • A difficult or overly demanding parent • Questions about the curriculum • Ideas about activities • Materials for activities • Questions about child development • Questions about a child with special needs • Your own personal problems • Problems you are having with co-workers • Problems with your immediate supervisor

Scales Used in Survey – Teachers & Aides Job Crafting – Relational/Communication • G3. Overall, how close do you feel to each of the following groups of people in your center? [very close, moderately close, a little close, not close at all] • (other) Assistants/Aides • (other) Teachers • Director • Other Professionals (social workers, nurses, etc.) • Volunteers • Children in your classroom • Parents of children in your classroom

Scales Used in Survey – Teachers & Aides Job Crafting – Relational/Communication • G4. At your center, how often do you do each of the following? • Attend formal staff meetings • Have informal staff discussions • Receive written memos/notices/e-mails about center issues • Have individual meetings with the director • Attend in-center presentations or workshops • G5. Sometimes culture or language differences can cause problems in workplaces, but sometimes not. How often do each of the following happen in your center? • You experience difficulty talking with co-workers due to culture or language problems • You experience difficulty talking with parents due to culture or language problems • You experience difficulty talking with children due to culture or language problems

Scales Used in Survey – Teachers & Aides Job Crafting -- Cognitive • H1. Next, we are interested in how you feel about your job. Please answer how much you agree or disagree with each statement [strongly disagree, disagree, neither agree nor disagree, agree, strongly agree] • My work gives me the opportunity to do things for other people • My job makes me feel like I’m contributing to the community • My work has a positive impact on children and parents • My work has a positive impact on my co-workers • My job positively affects children in ways that really last • I think of myself as a professional in this job

Scales Used in Survey – Teachers & Aides • H3. How do you feel about the center where you work and the early childhood education profession as a whole? Please answer how much you agree or disagree with each statement. • Organizational Commitment  • I wouldn’t want to work in any other center than the one I do now • I would recommend this center to parents seeking a place for their child • I usually look forward to each working day at this center • I feel loyal to this center  adapted from Bryk & Schneider 2002

Scales Used in Survey – Teachers & Aides • H3. How do you feel about the center where you work and the early childhood education profession as a whole? Please answer how much you agree or disagree with each statement • Professional Identity  • When someone criticizes early childhood education, it feels like a personal insult • I am very interested in what others think about early childhood education • When I talk about early childhood education, I usually say “we” rather than “they” • Early childhood education’s successes are my own successes • When someone praises early childhood education, it feels like a personal compliment • If a story in the media criticized early childhood education, I would feel embarrassed   adapted from organizational identification scale from Mael & Ashforth 1992, also used by Elsbach & Bhattacharya 2001

Scales Used in Survey – Teachers & Aides • Work Orientation (job/career/calling) • H4. Please answer how much you agree or disagree with each of the following statements about your job: • I expect to be in a higher level job in this field in five years • I would choose my current work life again if I had the opportunity • I enjoy talking about my work to others. • I view my job primarily as a stepping stone to other jobs • My primary reason for working is financial – to support my family and lifestyle • If I was financially secure, I would continue with my current line of work even if I was no longer paid • When I am not at work, I do not think much about my work • I never take work home with me • My work is one of the most important things in my life • My work is a chance to give back to the community

Scales Used in Survey – Teachers & Aides • Emotional Labor • H5. Throughout the workday you can feel lots of different emotions, for example, happiness, sadness, etc. For this question, think about everyone you have contact with in an average day, including the children in your center, co-workers, parents, and the center director. How often you do each of the following? [never, rarely, sometimes, often, always] • Resist expressing my true feelings • Try to actually experience the emotions that I must show • Hide my true feelings about a situation • Pretend to have emotions that I don’t really have • Make an effort to actually feel the emotions that I need to display to others • Really try to feel the emotions I have to show as part of my job  emotional labor scale from Brotheridge & Lee 2003

Scales Used in Survey – Teachers & Aides • Turnover Intention • H6. We’re interested in how people think about their future plans. How much do you agree or disagree with each of the following statements? • It is likely that I will actively look for a new job in early childhood education in the coming year • It is likely that I will actively look for a new job in another field in the coming year • I often think about quitting my job • It would take very little change in my present work circumstances to cause me to leave this center • There is not too much to be gained by sticking with this center beyond the coming year  Standard turnover intention scale from Becker 1992

Scales Used in Survey – Teachers & Aides • Emotional Exhaustion  • H7. How often do you feel each of the following? [never, once a month, few times a month, once a week, few times a week, every day] • Emotionally drained from your work • Physically used up at the end of the workday • Fatigued when you get up in the morning and have to face another day on the job • That working with children all day is really a strain for you • Burned out from your work • Frustrated by your job • That you are working too hard on your job • Like you’re at the end of your rope • Physical aches and pains due to exertion at work • That your job makes you physically tired.  Emotional exhaustion scale from Maslach’s 1981 burnout inventory

Scales Used in Survey – Teachers & Aides • Collective Job Crafting • J1. Do you work with other teachers or assistants/aides in your classroom? • J2. Think about things you do together with your co-workers in your classroom. How often do you decide together to change the classroom schedule? (For example: change when you take the children outside or when you do certain activities) • J3. How often do you decide together with your co-workers to change your classroom schedule to reduce wasted time? • J4. In a classroom, sometimes tasks or activities are done together, and sometimes one person starts and another person finishes [task interdependence]  • In your classroom, how often do you start a task or activity that is finished by someone else? • In your classroom, how often do you finish a task or activity that was started by someone else? Adapted from Dean and Snell 1991

Scales Used in Survey – Teachers & Aides Collective Job Crafting • J5. We are interested in the day-to-day decisions you make with your co-workers in the classroom. How often do you make the following decisions together? • Decide together with your co-workers to change minor work procedures that you think are not productive (such as lunch time or transition routines) • Decide together with your co-workers to change the way you do your job to make it easier for yourself • Decide together with your co-workers to rearrange equipment or furniture in the play areas of your classroom • Decide together with your co-workers to purchase materials with your own money for the classroom • Decide together with your co-workers to bring in other materials from home for the classroom (such as empty jars and egg cartons) • Work together with your coworkers to introduce new approaches to improve your work in the classroom • Work together with your co-workers to organize special events in your classroom (such as celebrating a child’s birthday, etc.) • Work together with your coworkers outside of normal working hours to plan or finish work • Work together with your coworkers to help the center director solve unexpected work- related problems • Work together with your coworkers on volunteer projects and committees

Scales Used in Survey – Teachers & Aides • Task Interdependence • J6. How often do you depend on the co-workers in your classroom to get your job done? • J7. How often do the co-workers in your classroom depend on you for information needed to perform their work? • J8. How much do you agree or disagree with the following? • Success in the classroom depends on cooperation between me and my coworkers • My co-workers and I need to rely on each other to get our jobs done. • Socialization/Informal Learning • J9. Often, a person learns about different aspects of their job informally from co-workers (not as part of a formal training program, workshop, formal supervision, or staff meeting). How much have you learned about the following topics informally from your co-workers? • Roles and responsibilities at work • Roles and responsibilities at work • Needs of specific children and their families Adapted from Campion, Medsker & Higgs 1993

Scales Used in Survey – Teachers & Aides • Job Satisfaction • K1. Overall, how satisfied do you feel with the following: • The approach your center takes in working with the children • The amount of work you are expected to do • Your pay compared to workers at a similar level in the field • The physical space available in the center • The benefits you get at this center • Discretion • K2. Centers sometimes differ in how much freedom and flexibility teachers and assistants/aides have. Please answer each of the following thinking about how this center works • How often does the classroom teacher usually plan all activities for the children? • How often can you decide on your own how to go about doing your work? • How often does your center allow you to be creative? • When you have a new idea, how often can you try it out? • How often are you able to change a set process when you work? • How often is there one specific “right way” to do things in your job?  Discretion scale adapted from Jehn 1995

Scales Used in Survey – Teachers & Aides • Individual Flexibility • M1. Individual employees can have employment arrangements that are different from their co-workers. For example, you might go to a training based on your personal interests that the rest of the staff did not attend, or request to work different work hours to meet your family needs.For each item listed below, please mark whether you asked for and received this special arrangement when you were hired, since you’ve worked at this center, or if you’ve never asked for it • Training opportunities different from co-workers • On-the-job skill development different from coworkers • Special arrangements for your personal child care needs different from co-workers • Schedule different from co- workers • On-the-job activities different from co-workers

Scales Used in Survey – Teachers & Aides • Individual Flexibility (continued) • Better pay than co-workers • More time off than co-workers (for example, for family needs, vacations, etc.) • Flexibility in starting and ending your work day • Reduced work hours Reduced work demands • Flexibility in moving to another classroom • Assistance with career development different from co-workers • Special arrangements in terms of what is expected of you at work

Reliability Coefficients • Scales previously used by Brenda Ghitulescu in her research on special education teachers (member of our research team) • Discretion: alpha = 0.79 • Task interdependence: alpha = 0.71 • Professional identity: alpha = 0.73 • Commitment: alpha = 0.87

Research Design • Two-state demonstration study of 60 Center directors, 180 teachers, and 180 aides/assistant teachers (PA, NJ) • Interview director, collect archival data • Observe classrooms • Survey teachers & aides/assistant teachers in work setting • Test instrumentation and measures • Develop/elaborate explanatory model • Develop and test hypotheses that predict measures of turnover (actual turnover, intention to turn over) and quality of care (ECCRS) • Independent variables include: • Directors’ management practices, leadership (director interview) • Work processes • Discretion/job crafting – individual and group • Coordination and communication

Research Design • Interviews, surveys carried out in classrooms across a variety of childcare settings in NJ and PA • Focus is on 3- and 4- year old classrooms • Ensure consistency in examining the nature of the job across sites • Public policy interest in universal public pre-K • Intermediate goals • New insights into effects of work process on staff retention and quality of care • Improve capacities of directors of ECE centers to manage programs and staff • Play pivotal role in creating work environments that lead to positive experiences for staff, children in their care • Long term goal • Refine instrumentation, measures for definitive national study of relationship between how work is organized, managed and outcomes – staff turnover, quality of care

Work Discretion, Job Crafting and Turnover in Early Care and Education Programs