Lecture 13 Inner Product Space & Linear Transformation

1. Lecture 13 Inner Product Space & Linear Transformation Last Time - Orthonormal Bases:Gram-Schmidt Process - Mathematical Models and Least Square Analysis - Inner Product Space Applications Elementary Linear Algebra R. Larsen et al. (5 Edition) TKUEE翁慶昌-NTUEE SCC_12_2007

2. Lecture 12: Inner Product Spaces & L.T. Today • Mathematical Models and Least Square Analysis • Inner Product Space Applications • Introduction to Linear Transformations Reading Assignment: Secs 5.4,5.5,6.1,6.2 Next Time • The Kernel and Range of a Linear Transformation • Matrices for Linear Transformations • Transition Matrix and Similarity Reading Assignment: Secs 6.2-6.4

3. What Have You Actually Learned about Projection So Far?

4. (read “ perp”) • Notes: 5.4 Mathematical Models and Least Squares Analysis • Orthogonal complement of W: Let W be a subspace of an inner product space V. (a) A vector u in V is said to orthogonal to W, if u is orthogonal to every vector inW. (b) The set of all vectors in V that are orthogonal to W is called the orthogonal complement of W.

5. Thm 5.13: (Properties of orthogonal subspaces) Let W be a subspace of Rn. Then the following properties are true. (1) (2) (3) • Direct sum: Let and be two subspaces of . If each vector can be uniquely written as a sum of a vector from and a vector from , , then is the direct sum of and , and you can write .

6. Find by the other method:

7. Thm 5.16: (Fundamental subspaces of a matrix) If A is an m×n matrix, then (1) (2) (3) (4)

8. Ex 6: (Fundamental subspaces) Find the four fundamental subspaces of the matrix. (reduced row-echelon form) Sol:

9. Check:

10. Sol: (reduced row-echelon form) • Ex 3: Let W is a subspace of R4 and . (a) Find a basis for W (b) Find a basis for the orthogonal complement of W.

11. Notes: is a basis for W

12. Least Squares Problem • Least squares problem: (A system of linear equations) (1) When the system is consistent, we can use the Gaussian elimination with back-substitution to solve for x (2) When the system is consistent, how to find the “best possible” solution of the system. That is, the value of x for which the difference between Ax and b is small.

13. Least squares solution: Given a system Ax = bof m linear equations in n unknowns, the least squares problem is to find a vector x in Rn that minimizes with respect to the Euclidean inner product on Rn. Such a vector is called a least squares solution ofAx = b.

14. (the normal system associated with Ax = b)

15. Note: The problem of finding the least squares solution of is equal to he problem of finding an exact solution of the associated normal system . • Thm: For any linear system , the associated normal system is consistent, and all solutions of the normal system are least squares solution of Ax = b. Moreover, if W is the column space of A, and x is any least squares solution of Ax = b, then the orthogonal projection of b on W is

16. Thm: If A is an m×n matrix with linearly independent column vectors, then for every m×1 matrix b, the linear system Ax = b has a unique least squares solution. This solution is given by Moreover, if W is the column space of A, then the orthogonal projection of b on W is

17. Ex 7: (Solving the normal equations) Find the least squares solution of the following system and find the orthogonal projection of b on the column space of A.

18. Sol: the associated normal system

19. the least squares solution of Ax = b the orthogonal projection of b on the column space of A

20. Keywords in Section 5.4: • orthogonal to W: 正交於W • orthogonal complement: 正交補集 • direct sum: 直和 • projection onto a subspace: 在子空間的投影 • fundamental subspaces: 基本子空間 • least squares problem: 最小平方問題 • normal equations: 一般方程式

23. Application: Cross Product Cross product (vector product) of two vectors 向量(vector) 方向: use right-hand rule The cross product is not commutative: The cross product is distributive: 13 - 23

24. y Bsinθ θ x Application: Cross Product Parallelogram representation of the vector product Area 13 - 24

25. 向量之三重純量積 Triple Scalar product 純量(scalar) The dot and the cross may be interchanged : 13 - 25

26. 向量之三重純量積 Parallelepiped representation of triple scalar product Volume of parallelepiped defined by , , and z y x 13 - 26

27. Fourier Approximation 13 - 27

28. Fourier Approximation • The Fourier series transforms a given periodic function into a superposition of sine and cosine waves • The following equations are used

29. Today • Mathematical Models and Least Square Analysis (Cont.) • Inner Product Space Applications • Introduction to Linear Transformations • The Kernel and Range of a Linear Transformation

30. 6.1 Introduction to Linear Transformations • Function T that maps a vector space V into a vector space W: V: the domain of T W: the codomain of T

31. Image of v under T: If v is in V and w is in W such that Then w is called the image of v under T . • the range of T: The set of all images of vectors in V. • the preimage of w: The set of all v in V such that T(v)=w.

32. Ex 1: (A function from R2 intoR2 ) (a) Find the image of v=(-1,2). (b) Find the preimage of w=(-1,11) Sol: Thus {(3, 4)} is the preimage of w=(-1, 11).

33. Linear Transformation (L.T.):

34. Addition in V Addition in W Scalar multiplication in V Scalar multiplication in W • Notes: (1) A linear transformation is said to be operation preserving. (2) A linear transformation from a vector space into itself is called a linear operator.

35. Ex 2: (Verifying a linear transformation T from R2 into R2) Pf:

36. Therefore, T is a linear transformation.

37. Ex 3: (Functions that are not linear transformations)

38. Notes: Two uses of the term “linear”. (1) is called a linear function because its graph is a line. (2) is not a linear transformation from a vector space R into R because it preserves neither vector addition nor scalar multiplication.

39. Zero transformation: • Identity transformation: • Thm 6.1: (Properties of linear transformations)

40. Ex 4: (Linear transformations and bases) Let be a linear transformation such that Find T(2, 3, -2). Sol: (T is a L.T.)

41. Ex 5: (A linear transformation defined by a matrix) The function is defined as Sol: (vector addition) (scalar multiplication)

42. Thm 6.2: (The linear transformation given by a matrix) Let A be an mn matrix. The function T defined by is a linear transformation from Rn into Rm. • Note:

43. Ex 7: (Rotation in the plane) Show that the L.T. given by the matrix has the property that it rotates every vector in R2 counterclockwise about the origin through the angle . Sol: (polar coordinates) r： the length of v ：the angle from the positive x-axis counterclockwise to the vector v

44. r：the length of T(v)  +：the angle from the positive x-axis counter- clockwise to the vector T(v) Thus, T(v) is the vector that results from rotating the vector v counterclockwise through the angle .

45. Ex 8: (A projection in R3) The linear transformation is given by is called a projection in R3.

46. Ex 9: (A linear transformation from Mmn into Mnm ) Show that T is a linear transformation. Sol: Therefore, T is a linear transformation from Mmn into Mnm.

47. Keywords in Section 6.1: • function: 函數 • domain: 論域 • codomain: 對應論域 • image of v under T: 在T映射下v的像 • range of T: T的值域 • preimage of w: w的反像 • linear transformation: 線性轉換 • linear operator: 線性運算子 • zero transformation: 零轉換 • identity transformation: 相等轉換

48. Today • Mathematical Models and Least Square Analysis (Cont.) • Inner Product Space Applications • Introduction to Linear Transformations • The Kernel and Range of a Linear Transformation

49. Ex 1: (Finding the kernel of a linear transformation) Sol: 6.2 The Kernel and Range of a Linear Transformation • Kernel of a linear transformation T: Let be a linear transformation Then the set of all vectors v in V that satisfy is called the kernel of T and is denoted by ker(T).

50. Ex 3: (Finding the kernel of a linear transformation) Sol: • Ex 2: (The kernel of the zero and identity transformations) (a) T(v)=0 (the zero transformation ) (b) T(v)=v (the identity transformation )