IMS9300 IS/IM FUNDAMENTALS

1. IMS9300 IS/IM FUNDAMENTALS Professional practice Ethics in IM/IT

2. The Origins of Professions • What do these have in common? • Lawyer • Priest • Soldier • Doctor

3. Historical Overview • The modern concept of professionalism only emerged in the early 20th. century • appearance of new occupational groups • occupations that “service” the established industrial/commercial economy • occupational grouping organised in a collegial manner • growth of university professional schools • occupations as the focus of study by social scientists

4. Characteristics of Professions control over: - acquisition of knowledge - application of knowledge - access to the profession jurisdiction over: - knowledge - members power: - within society - within profession - over client

5. Features of the Professions • The characteristics of professions are guaranteed by institutional forms: Standards • ethical codes; licensing; associations Extensive training • formal; practical Legislative • disciplinary

6. The Nature of Professions • Individualistic • the professional is self employed • Exclusive • no other can do the work • barriers to entry to profession • Esoteric • non-routine application of a body of knowledge on a case by case basis • Territorial • profession is concerned with maintaining jurisdictional boundaries over the body of knowledge

7. Professions over Time • It is important to recognise that professions change over time and that professions can “die” ( become extinct). • Changes to: • the content of professional work • the body of knowledge • technology (specialised work becomes routine/automated) • Inability of the profession to abstract knowledge in the face of technological change leads to professional death.

8. Profession -a (useful) definition • A profession is an organised body of experts who apply esoteric knowledge to particular cases. (Abbot, 1988; p4)

9. The IS Professional (in theory) • possesses broad and deep knowledge • has highly developed skills • has an altruistic attitude towards the client • is committed to high ethical standards • is self reliant and free from influence, guidance or control of any other individual or organisation • (Mason, Masom & Culnan, 1995; p153)

10. The IS Professional • The Body of Knowledge - about: • information, • knowledge and • information technology • Skills in - processing symbols (models): • abstracting the codified or objectified aspects of subjective information • Standards - professional ethics: • quality standards, • organisational standards

11. Responsibility of the Professional • The interaction between a professional and a client involves both an information exchange and a power relationship • The client is always at a disadvantage because they want something that only a professional can provide • The professional is in a position to influence the client’s behaviour and thinking • Ethical responsibility derives from the power advantage enjoyed by the professional

12. The Professional as Employee • Where professionals are employed directly by an organisation they need to serve two masters: • work towards achieving organisational goals and objectives by following superior’s instructions. • a duty to exercise judgement in any given situation that is consistent with their profession

13. Accountability of the Professional • To maintain its privileged position, the profession needs to be accountable to society. • At the same time, individual professionals need to be accountable to the public in general and their clients in particular • A code of ethics is the formal means by which the profession and individuals are held accountable Remember: the state has ceded to (given) the profession the right to control the behaviour of the professional)

14. Social Responsibility of Professions Monitor & regulate Practice & practitioners Set &monitor standards of practice Educate public regarding acceptable practice Develop & maintain body of knowledge Educate & train professionals Social Responsibility of Profession Social Purpose Body of Knowledge Source: Mason, Mason &Culnan, 1995; p163

15. Individual Responsibilities • do no harm • be competent • maintain independence and avoid conflict of interest • match client expectations • maintain fiduciary responsibility (information held in trust) • safeguard client’s privacy • protect records • safeguard intellectual property

16. Individual Responsibilities (cont.) • provide quality information avoid bias • manage gatekeeping and censorship • keep client confidentiality • obtain informed consent • abide by the legal regime (laws, contracts, licence agreements) • be a steward of client’s resources (provide information at the right time, place form and cost)

17. Professional Judgement • Professionals work in environments which are: • contextually and situationally unique • uncertain in that multiple outcomes are possible and acceptable • complex in that there are multiple, simultaneous interpretations of the situation • value laden in that two or more diverse ends are usually pursued simultaneously • Meeting client needs is not purely a technical, analytically predetermined task. Moreover technology provides another dimension which opens many other choices.

18. Ethics in IM/IS • The exercise of power always raises ethical issues • Power stems from • position • knowledge • credentials • “information is power

19. Perspectives on Ethical Issues • Ethical issues need to be considered on 2 levels: the context • how the information system and its products fit, and are used, in the organisation and/or the broader community the object the product - how the information system is designed and constructed • These two levels are interdependent and both need to be addressed.

20. Ethics and Morality Morality - human conduct and values Ethics - the study of conduct and values • Common usage is that the terms are interchangable

21. Etiquette Laws Professional Codes Ethics Ethics as Standards The continuum of standards:

22. Moral Standards • Independent of religion • Societal differences are not significant when considered at a meta-level • Apply to both individuals and society in the sense that of how individuals perceives that society or their ideals, values and aspirations for that society. • The central issue is whether an ethical principle can be justified rather than concern with where and how the principle was formed.

23. Characteristics of Moral Standards • Behaviour can have serious consequences for human welfare, either to profundly injure or benefit people • Takes priority over other standards • Dependent on the adequacy of the reasons that support or justify the standard

24. Etiquette • Social code of behaviour • Generally non-moral • transgression results in social isolation ( a person is considered uncivilised, ill-mannered) • can have moral implications eg sexism, racism

25. Law • Codifies customs, ideals, beliefs and society’s moral values • conformity with the law is not sufficient for moral conduct but the law provides some minimum standards of moral conduct and social behaviour • non-conformity is not necessarily immoral

26. Types of Law • Statutes - legislation passed by legislative bodies • Regulations - administrative rules formulated by statutory bodies • Common law- accumulated legal decisions which form a body of legal principles (only in English speaking countries • Constitutional - compatibility of any law with the relevant constitution

27. Professional Codes • Rules that govern the conduct of members • Members assume a moral obligation to conform • Conformity is a condition of membership • Violation can result in exclusion • Are incomplete and inadequate as a guide for individual ethical behaviour

28. Ethical Theories • Relativism • no absolute or universal right and wrong • moral standards as a function of societal beliefs • Universalism • what is right/wrong applies to all • Consequentialism • considers the outcome of behaviour • Deontologism • duty • what is right • rights • Utilitarianism • proper outcome is the greatest good over bad for all affected by the action • linked to cost/benefits and risk management

29. Influences on ethical judgement • Environment – time, place, pressure • Individual - family, peer censure, what people think • Society - social norms, etiquette • Belief system - religious, “living with oneself” • Legal environment - laws • Professional environment - code of conduct - enforced or guideline (Kreie & Cronan, 1998)

30. Element of Ethical Behaviour • Accountability - to onself and to ones ideals • Obligations - to act morally in relation to others affected by that act • Responsibility - both social and moral • Intentionality - to act consistently with moral standards

31. Role of Ethical Training • To make defensible moral judgement • To reflect critically on the moral principles and ideals involved in a particular situation • To have a framework for critical analysis

32. Making Ethical Judgement • Judgements need to be: • logical • based on facts • based on acceptable principles • Presumes • rational actors • good will • mutual desire for judgement • ability to communicate clearly

33. Ethical Decision Making • Evaluate the factual claim and determine what are the relevant facts • Challenge the moral standard and identify what ethical principles are involved • Defend the moral standard and determine which principle has primacy • Revise and modify the moral standard to determine if there is another way see the situation

34. Ethical Decision Making process • Determine the relevant facts • Identify the ethical principles involved • Which standards are at risk? • What are the “consequences” of the action? • Determine which principle is most important • Check whether there are other ways see the situation • employer’s view (as a society as well as power) • profession’s view, • society’s view

35. The Professional Dilema • Professional duties and responsibilities (sometimes) conflict with organisational goals and outcomes. • Ethical behaviour can conflict with legal statutes and/or contractual obligations • The professional needs knowledge and skills to resolve these conflicts by themselves as the situations arise in particular contexts.

36. Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde • The organisational dilema is: “... the structure and function of organisations in general, and corporate organisations in particular, require that members adhere to the organisational norms and, in fact, force commitment and conformity to them.” (Shaw, 1991; p22) • Raises the discrepancy between individual and corporate ethics and the resolution of the conflict between the two. • It also suggests that organisations can be seen as moral agents, analogous to the concept of the organisation as a legal entity, and can be accountable for their actions.

37. A Practical Ethical Test • “Before you act, be sure you will be comfortable with an [The Australian / The Age ] story, tomorrow morning, reporting what you did.” (Oz, 1994; p11)

38. References • REYNOLDS, G. (2003) Ethics in Information Technology, Thomson Learning, Inc. Massachusetts. Chapter 2 Background reading: • TURBAN,E., RAINER, R.K. Jnr. and POTTER, R.E. (2003) 2nd ed., Introduction to Information Technology. JOHN WILEY & SONS, INC. Section 15