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Chapter 6 Alkyl Halides: Nucleophilic Substitution and Elimination

Organic Chemistry , 6 h Edition L. G. Wade, Jr. Chapter 6 Alkyl Halides: Nucleophilic Substitution and Elimination Jo Blackburn Richland College, Dallas, TX Dallas County Community College District ã 2006, Prentice Hall => Classes of Halides

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Chapter 6 Alkyl Halides: Nucleophilic Substitution and Elimination

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  1. Organic Chemistry, 6h EditionL. G. Wade, Jr. Chapter 6Alkyl Halides: Nucleophilic Substitution and Elimination Jo Blackburn Richland College, Dallas, TX Dallas County Community College District ã 2006,Prentice Hall

  2. => Classes of Halides • Alkyl: Halogen, X, is directly bonded to sp3 carbon. • Vinyl: X is bonded to sp2 carbon of alkene. • Aryl: X is bonded to sp2 carbon on benzene ring. Examples: Chapter 6

  3. Polarity and Reactivity • Halogens are more electronegative than C. • Carbon-halogen bond is polar, so carbon has partial positive charge. • Carbon can be attacked by a nucleophile. • Halogen can leave with the electron pair. => Chapter 6

  4. => IUPAC Nomenclature • Name as haloalkane. • Choose the longest carbon chain, even if the halogen is not bonded to any of those C’s. • Use lowest possible numbers for position. Chapter 6

  5. => Systematic Common Names • Name as alkyl halide. • Useful only for small alkyl groups. • Name these: Chapter 6

  6. “Trivial” Names • CH2X2 called methylene halide. • CHX3 is a haloform. • CX4 is carbon tetrahalide. • Examples: • CH2Cl2 is methylene chloride. • CHCl3 is chloroform. • CCl4 is carbon tetrachloride. => Chapter 6

  7. Classes of Alkyl Halides • Methyl halides: only one C, CH3X • Primary: C to which X is bonded has only one C-C bond. • Secondary: C to which X is bonded has two C-C bonds. • Tertiary: C to which X is bonded has three C-C bonds. => Chapter 6

  8. => Classify These: Chapter 6

  9. => Dihalides • Geminal dihalide: two halogen atoms are bonded to the same carbon. • Vicinal dihalide: two halogen atoms are bonded to adjacent carbons. Chapter 6

  10. Uses of Alkyl Halides • Solvents - degreasers and dry cleaning fluid. • Reagents for synthesis of other compounds. • Anesthetics: Halothane is CF3CHClBr • CHCl3 used originally (toxic and carcinogenic). • Freons, chlorofluorocarbons or CFC’s • Freon 12, CF2Cl2, now replaced with Freon 22, CF2CHCl, not as harmful to ozone layer. • Pesticides - DDT banned in U.S. => Chapter 6

  11. Dipole Moments • m= 4.8 x d x d, where d is the charge (proportional to DEN) and d is the distance (bond length) in Angstroms. • Electronegativities: F > Cl > Br > I • Bond lengths: C-F < C-Cl < C-Br < C-I • Bond dipoles: C-Cl > C-F > C-Br > C-I1.56 D 1.51 D 1.48 D 1.29 D • Molecular dipoles depend on shape, too! => Chapter 6

  12. Boiling Points • Greater intermolecular forces, higher b.p. • Dipole-dipole attractions not significantly different for different halides • London forces greater for larger atoms • Greater mass, higher b.p. • Spherical shape decreases b.p. (CH3)3CBr CH3(CH2)3Br 73C 102C => Chapter 6

  13. Densities • Alkyl fluorides and chlorides less dense than water. • Alkyl dichlorides, bromides, and iodides more dense than water. => Chapter 6

  14. Preparation of RX • Free radical halogenation (Chapter 4) • produces mixtures, not good lab synthesis • unless: all H’s are equivalent, or • halogenation is highly selective. • Free radical allylic halogenation • produces alkyl halide with double bond on the neighboring carbon. => Chapter 6

  15. => Halogenation of Alkanes • All H’s equivalent. Restrict amount of halogen to prevent di- or trihalide formation • Highly selective: bromination of 3 C Chapter 6

  16. => Allylic Halogenation • Allylic radical is resonance stabilized. • Bromination occurs with good yield at the allylic position (sp3 C next to C=C). • Avoid a large excess of Br2 by using N-bromosuccinimide (NBS) to generate Br2 as product HBr is formed. Chapter 6

  17. => Reaction Mechanism Free radical chain reaction • initiation, propagation, termination. Chapter 6

  18. Substitution Reactions • The halogen atom on the alkyl halide is replaced with another group. • Since the halogen is more electronegative than carbon, the C-X bond breaks heterolytically and X- leaves. • The group replacing X- is a nucleophile. => Chapter 6

  19. Elimination Reactions • The alkyl halide loses halogen as a halide ion, and also loses H+ on the adjacent carbon to a base. • A pi bond is formed. Product is alkene. • Also called dehydrohalogenation (-HX). => Chapter 6

  20. SN2 Mechanism • Bimolecular nucleophilic substitution. • Concerted reaction: new bond forming and old bond breaking at same time. • Rate is first order in each reactant. • Walden inversion. => Chapter 6

  21. SN2 Energy Diagram • One-step reaction. • Transition state is highest in energy. => Chapter 6

  22. Uses for SN2 Reactions • Synthesis of other classes of compounds. • Halogen exchange reaction. => Chapter 6

  23. => SN2: Nucleophilic Strength • Stronger nucleophiles react faster. • Strong bases are strong nucleophiles, but not all strong nucleophiles are basic. Chapter 6

  24. Trends in Nucleophilic Strength • Of a conjugate acid-base pair, the base is stronger: OH- > H2O, NH2- > NH3 • Decreases left to right on Periodic Table. More electronegative atoms less likely to form new bond: OH- > F-, NH3 > H2O • Increases down Periodic Table, as size and polarizability increase: I- > Br- > Cl- => Chapter 6

  25. Polarizability Effect => Chapter 6

  26. => Bulky Nucleophiles Sterically hindered for attack on carbon, so weaker nucleophiles. Chapter 6

  27. => Solvent Effects (1) Polar protic solvents (O-H or N-H) reduce the strength of the nucleophile. Hydrogen bonds must be broken before nucleophile can attack the carbon. Chapter 6

  28. => Solvent Effects (2) • Polar aprotic solvents (no O-H or N-H) do not form hydrogen bonds with nucleophile. • Examples: Chapter 6

  29. => Crown Ethers • Solvate the cation, so nucleophilic strength of the anion increases. • Fluoride becomes a good nucleophile. Chapter 6

  30. => Leaving Group Ability • Electron-withdrawing • Stable once it has left (not a strong base) • Polarizable to stabilize the transition state. Chapter 6

  31. Structure of Substrate Structure of Substrate • Relative rates for SN2: CH3X > 1° > 2° >> 3° • Tertiary halides do not react via the SN2 mechanism, due to steric hindrance. => Chapter 6

  32. => Steric Hindrance • Nucleophile approaches from the back side. • It must overlap the back lobe of the C-X sp3 orbital. Chapter 6

  33. Stereochemistry of SN2 Walden inversion => Chapter 6

  34. SN1 Reaction • Unimolecular nucleophilic substitution. • Two step reaction with carbocation intermediate. • Rate is first order in the alkyl halide, zero order in the nucleophile. • Racemization occurs. => Chapter 6

  35. => SN1 Mechanism (1) Formation of carbocation (slow) Chapter 6

  36. => SN1 Mechanism (2) • Nucleophilic attack • Loss of H+ (if needed) Chapter 6

  37. SN1 Energy Diagram • Forming the carbocation is endothermic • Carbocation intermediate is in an energy well. => Chapter 6

  38. Rates of SN1 Reactions • 3° > 2° > 1° >> CH3X • Order follows stability of carbocations (opposite to SN2) • More stable ion requires less energy to form • Better leaving group, faster reaction (like SN2) • Polar protic solvent best: It solvates ions strongly with hydrogen bonding. => Chapter 6

  39. Stereochemistry of SN1 Racemization: inversion and retention => Chapter 6

  40. Rearrangements • Carbocations can rearrange to form a more stable carbocation. • Hydride shift: H- on adjacent carbon bonds with C+. • Methyl shift: CH3- moves from adjacent carbon if no H’s are available. => Chapter 6

  41. => Hydride Shift Chapter 6

  42. => Methyl Shift Chapter 6

  43. Primary or methyl Strong nucleophile Polar aprotic solvent Rate = k[halide][Nuc] Inversion at chiral carbon No rearrangements Tertiary Weak nucleophile (may also be solvent) Polar protic solvent, silver salts Rate = k[halide] Racemization of optically active compound Rearranged products => SN2 or SN1? Chapter 6

  44. E1 Reaction • Unimolecular elimination • Two groups lost (usually X- and H+) • Nucleophile acts as base • Also have SN1 products (mixture) => Chapter 6

  45. E1 Mechanism • Halide ion leaves, forming carbocation. • Base removes H+ from adjacent carbon. • Pi bond forms. => Chapter 6

  46. => A Closer Look Chapter 6

  47. E1 Energy Diagram Note: first step is same as SN1 => Chapter 6

  48. major minor => Zaitsev’s Rule • If more than one elimination product is possible, the most-substituted alkene is the major product (most stable). • R2C=CR2>R2C=CHR>RHC=CHR>H2C=CHR tetra > tri > di > mono Chapter 6

  49. E2 Reaction • Bimolecular elimination. • Requires a strong base. • Halide leaving and proton abstraction happens simultaneously - no intermediate. => Chapter 6

  50. E2 Mechanism • Order of reactivity: 3° > 2 ° > 1° • Mixture may form, but Zaitsev productpredominates. => Chapter 6

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