Just the Tip of the Iceberg! Second Language Acquisition Theories.

1. Just the Tip of the Iceberg! Second Language Acquisition Theories. Compiled by Deborah Coker Revised for this in-service

2. Our Motivation As the nation’s population has become inundated with immigrants from many different nations speaking many different languages and dialects, educators have sought instructional practices that will expedite English Language acquisition in a practical, efficient, and meaningful manner. A plethora of theories have evolved and they can be broken down into four major categories: • Behaviorist • Cognitivist • Humanistic • Constructivist (Postmodern Techniques of Knowledge) (Diaz-Rico, 2008)

3. Behaviorist (p. 37) “Use behavioral training for accurate pronunciation and rote memory of information such as object and motor vocabulary.” Cognitivist (p.41) “Align learning with the brain and its natural ways of knowledge acquisition.” Schools of Thought: • Postmodern Techniques of Knowledge: Constructivist (p.65) “Leave behind one-size-fits-all methods and negotiate activities and objectives based on the needs of the learner, using knowledge of learning styles and multiple intelligences, and encouraging meta-cognition and self-reflection in order to increase students’ self knowledge and capacity for making conscious meaning.” • Humanistic (p.51) “Reduce tension and support a positive emotional state in the learner. (Diaz-Rico, 2008)

4. Behaviorist Approach Major strategies used in the behaviorist approach: • B.F.Skinner’s Experimental Behaviorism: “Actions followed by an immediate positive effect (reward) tend to be repeated, and actions followed by an immediate negative effect (punishment) tend to be discontinued.” (p.38) • The Audio-lingual Method: “Students developed correct language habits by repetitious training, often using technology such as tape recordings in language laboratories.” (p.38) • Asher’s Total Physical Response: “Based on the association between language and body movement.”(p.39)There is a shaping of response and external rewards are faded. Great for those at the non-verbal stage of language acquisition. • Direct Teaching and Mastery Learning:" This type of learning emphasizes explicit instructional objectives for students and promotes the learning of facts, sequenced steps, or rules.” (p. 39) (Diaz-Rico, p.38-39)

5. Cognitive Approach*Provided the theoretical basis for the Natural Approach. Major strategies used in the Cognitive approach include: • Chomsky’s Generative Grammar: “Language is learned through reinforcement and an active language processor, the language acquisition device (LAD) which generates rules through the unconscious acquisition of grammar.”(p.41) • Krashen’s Monitor Model: “Krashen considered acquisition (an unconscious process that occurs when language is used for real communication) more important that learning (which involves “knowing about” language and its rules) in achieving fluency, and deemphasized direct instruction of syntax rules.” (p.41) • Information-Processing Theories: “The sensory register (input/recognition), short-term memory (information encoding), and long-term memory (storage) work together during learning.” (p.43)”Perception is the process by which the sensory register receives and briefly holds environmental stimuli, either as images or sound patterns, and selects input for further processing.” (p. 43) • Alternative Theories of Mental Functioning: “As information is received, the brain creates a pattern across the net, adjusted over time by repeated exposure.” (p.45) (Diaz-Rico, p.41-48)

6. Other Universal Grammar Theories • The Competition Model by Felix (1985): Children’s learning process follows a Language-Specific Cognitive System while adults use a Problem Solving System. The challenge arises when the two systems compete in an adult who is trying to master a new language. • Dulay and Burt’s Creative Construction Theory (1974): Children learn as they apply ‘universal innate mechanisms’. These mechanisms allow them to reconstruct rules for the new language as they hear it used. After listening for an extended period of time, students are then able to apply what they have been studying. (Overview of Second Language Acquisition Theory, May, 2003

7. Krashen’s Monitor Model • The Acquisition-Learning Hypothesis (1981): This idea is similar to Chomsky’s LAD. He thought acquisition outweighed learning when it comes to achieving fluency and he de-emphasize direct instruction of syntax rules. • The Natural Order Hypothesis:“Language rules are acquired in a predictable order, and certain grammatical rules of the language tend to be acquired before the others.”(p.42) • The Monitor Hypothesis: “The mind employs an editor, the monitor, which scans utterances for accuracy in order to make corrections” (p.42) This can only happen if enough wait time is allowed by the instructor • The Input Hypothesis:“Learners acquire language by “intaking” and understanding language that is a “little beyond” their current level of competence. (Krashen, 1981) (p. 2) • The Affective Filter Hypothesis:“An individual’s emotions can directly interfere or assist in the learning of a new language…Speaking out in a new language can result in anxiety, embarrassment, or anger. These negative emotions can create a kind of filter that blocks the learner’s ability to process new or difficult words.”( p.3) (Overview of Second Language Acquisition Theory, May, 2003)

8. Continuum of Learning*Krashen continued A dominant philosophy shared by many theorists, specifically those in the Naturalist Approach, is that language is acquired through predictable and sequential stages of language development. • Stage I: The Silent/Receptive or Preproduction Stage • Stage II: The Early Production Stage • Stage III: The Speech Emergence Stage • Stage IV: The intermediate Language Proficiency Stage • Stage V: The Advanced Language Proficiency (Overview of Second Language Acquisition Theory, May, 2003)& (Diaz-Rico, p.43)

9. Information Processing Theory in Action: • State the purpose • Short-Term Memory (STM) receives patterns of images and sounds • Enhance STM by playing short-term memory games • Long-Term Memory (LTM) is boosted by using a schema (structure for organizing information or concepts) combined with scripts (which stores a common behavioral sequence). (Diaz-Rico, p.44)

10. Ways to Enhance Students’ Perception: (Diaz-Rico, p.44)

11. Ways to Enhance Storage and Retrieval of Information from Long Term Memory: (Diaz-Rico, p. 45)

12. Alternative Theories of Mental Functioning: Brain Compatible Learning is a descriptor that encompasses several additional theories. “It helps to reconceptualize teaching by taking into consideration how the brain learns.” (D’Arcangelo, 1998; Jensen, 1998; Wolfe & Sorgen, 1990) • Multiple Intelligences by Howard Gardner (1983): There are eight different intelligences (linguistic, musical, spatial, logical-mathematical, bodily-kinesthetic, interpersonal, intrapersonal, and natural) when used help to lower affective filters. • Emotional Intelligence by Salovey and Mayer (1990) and popularized Goleman (1998): Made up of five competencies: self awareness, self regulation, motivation, social skills, and empathy. • Suggestopedia by Lozanov (1982): “Pronunciation, vocabulary, and grammar are assimilated and learned intuitively.” (p. 47) After relaxed and supportive instruction make connections through what Lozanov calls “elaborations”. These are things like reading dialogues, singing songs, playing games, and having conversations. (Diaz-Rico, p. 47)

13. Behaviorist vs. Cognitivist (Diaz-Rico, p.49)

14. Humanistic Approach (Diaz-Rico, p. 51-57)

15. Implementation of the Humanistic Approach Ways to Reduce Student Anxiety: (Adapted from Woolfolk, 2007) • Monitor activities to reduce undue pressure. • Give students in competitive tasks a reasonable chance to succeed. • Avoid making anxious students perform in front of large groups. • Give examples or models of how the task is done when starting a new type of task. • Teach skills explicitly and provide study guides. • Vary assignments over different modes of language learning. • Energize students by giving them a chance to be physically active. (Diaz-Rico, p. 55)

16. Postmodern Techniques of Knowledge This is the latest incarnation of Language Acquisition Theory! There are four different components that make up the postmodern techniques of knowledge acquisition (constructivism, intercultural positioning, metarational thinking, and creation of meaning) . This model is interactive. In addition to adding cooperative and engaging activities, instructors create “mindful and “cultureful” learning”. (p.65) The primary language and culture of our students will become imbedded in our instruction to engage learners and facilitate their acquisition of new knowledge. Using this as our foundation, our students will construct new meanings, connections, and applications for their learning! (Diaz-Rico, p.65)

17. The Path of Inter-Cultural Educators!

18. Time to Process Now, please turn to your neighbor and share… • any ah-ha’s that may have occurred to you • which approach do you find you have leaned toward most? • what processing strategies are you most likely to implement? • How can you create real world situations to create the need for your students to actively communicate?

19. Reflection Looking back over the different theories it becomes abundantly clear that our current practices are a composite, a mosaic reminiscent of the many cultures we see in our classrooms.. We have definitely left the behaviorist techniques in the past in favor of those that include cognition. These methodologies were many and varied, creating a wealth of strategies to teach not just ESL students, but all students. Jenson’s arguments in favor of emotional intelligence are validated by the humanist approach. May we all be lucky enough to be nurtured by those who build us up and believe in us. And finally, we step into the 21st century with our Postmodern Techniques of Knowledge. By empowering our second language learners with language and pride and ownership of their primary culture we are truly becoming a global community.

20. References: • Butler-Pascoe, M. & Wiburg, K.(2003). Technology and teaching english language learners, Boston: Pearson Education, Inc. • Diaz-Rico, L.(2008). Strategies for teaching english learners, (Second Ed.) Boston: Pearson Education, Inc. • Gitsaki, C. (n.d.).Second language acquisition theories: Overview and evaluation. Retrieved May 17th, 2008, from Web site: http://spider.georgetowncollege.edu/Education/documents/District%20Guidelines/ESL%20Theories.pdf • Greenberg, L.J.(2004). Language acquisition. Retrieved May 17th , 2008, from Web site: http://earthenrenewal.org/secondlang.htm • Overview of second language acquisition theory (2003). Retrieved May 17th,2008, from Web site: http://www.nwrel.org/request/2003may/overview.html • Teachers of English to Speakers of Other Languages. (2004). Standards and other initiatives, Retrieved October 11, 2004, from Web Site: http://www.tesol.org/s_tesol/secess.asp?CID=86&DID=1556