Tricky bits….

1. Tricky bits…. Exceptions to all those rules – and common mistakes

2. Punctuation and Grammar Rules

3. Capitals • Use capitals to: • Begin a sentence • For name and titles • For the pronoun I • For the first word of direct speech inside inverted commas EG: • Sue smiled and said, “Everyone needs a holiday.”

4. Apostrophes • An apostrophe has TWO uses: • To show where letters have been missed out • Do + not = don’t • To show ownership • The cat’s paws (one cat); The cats’paws (more than one cat)

5. Commas • Use commas to make writing clear and easy to read. Commas are used: • To separate items in a list • To mark off part of a sentence that reads as if it were in brackets • To separate a person’s name from the rest of the senteces • To introduce direct conversation EG: • The teacher said, “You must read your notes.”

6. Commas cont… • To separate details of a written date • To separate coordinate clauses joined by conjunctions such as and and but when the second clause contains a change of subject EG • Their new product is in the shops, and they hope it will sell well. • A comma isn’t needed if the subject doesn’t change • George has a black belt in karate and his sister is also skilled in the sport.

7. Comma splice • Never join the principle clauses in a compound sentence with comma. EG: • Annabel is an excellent player, she scored the winning goal. x • Annabel is an excellent player, and she scored he winning goal OR  • Annabel an excellent player; she scored the winning goal. 

8. Don’t break sentences in 2 • Don’t use full stops for commas EG: • I met her at LPHS three years ago. On our first day of school.

9. Semicolons • Instead of a conjunction to separate two clauses e.g. • Bill Bryson’s books are entertaining; they are filled with insightful ideas. • To separate items in a list to avoid confusion • To deliberately create a pause that will emphasise the following words.

10. Colons • Use them after an independent clause to introduce a list of specifics, to amplify or before an illustrative quotation EG: • Your dedicated writer requires: a laptop, a dictionary and a notepad. • Even so, there was a directness to the burial: there was no wreath, no eulogy and no prayer. • The squalor of the streets reminded her of a quote from Wilde: “We are all in the gutter but some of us are looking at the stars.”

11. The dash • Used to set off an abrupt break or interruption and to announce a long appositive or summary EG: • His first thought on getting out of bed – if he had any thought at all – was to get back in again.

12. Syntax

13. Run on sentences… • A sentence in which two or more independent clauses (i.e. complete sentences) are joined without appropriate punctuation or conjunction. EG: • A run-on sentence, with no punctuation or conjunction between "five" and "we": It is nearly half past five we can not reach the town before dark. • A run-on sentence where some independent clauses are missing parts of speech, so that one clause "morphs" into the next: I was interested in bought one of them

14. Split infinitives • Generally it’s wrong to spit the infinitive form of a verb (to be, to walk, to sing) with an adverb. EG: • My aim is to quickly do my homework. X • My aims to do my homework quickly. 

15. Different… • Is followed by from, not to or than. • Their attitudes are different to/than mine X • Their attitudes are different from mine √

16. After I or We, use shall not will • I will travel to Australia in June X • I shall travel to Australia in June √ • None should never be followed by a plural verb • None of the books have been returned X • None of the books has been returned √

17. Form the possessive singular by adding ‘s • Charles’s friend, Burns’s poems Except the possessive of ancient proper names e.g. Jesus’ and forms such as righteousness’ sake • Hers, its, theirs, yours and ours have no apostrophe but indefinite pronouns do use ‘s to show possession e.g. one’s rights

18. Subject and verb agreement • A verb must always agree in number with its subject. If the subject is singular, then the verb must be singular too. • The doctor was going to the hospital. • If the subject is plural, the verb must be plural too. • The doctors were going to the hospital

19. Collective nouns and verb agreement • Collective nouns refer to a number of things • In most cases, treat as a singular so take a singular verb • The crowd was moving towards the stadium • BUT if the noun seems like it can be treated as a number of individuals, use a plural verb • The audience are leaping to their feet and cheering

20. Common Mistakes

21. Tautology • Needless repetition of words • Precise writing omits needless words • EG. The reason why was that (Because) • EG. In a hasty manner (Hastily)

22. Affect Effect • Affect is always a verb. Meanings: • To act upon or influence • To make a difference to • To impress or move feelings • To make a show of or pretend • The poem affected me deeply • Effect can be a verb OR a noun • As a verb, effect means to cause or bring about • As a noun it means as a result of • After promotion, she effected many changes

23. Your You’re • Your is a pronoun (second person, possessive plural). EG: • Your car is faster than mine • You’re is the contracted form of you + are EG: • You’re a safe a driver.

24. Their They’re There • There is an adverb, describes position • EG That car over there is the latest model • Their is an adjective, (possessive form) of they • EG Their car • They’re is the contraction of they + are • EG They’re driving too fast for the conditions

25. To too • To is a preposition, it shows the relationship between two or more things EG: • I am going to the shop • Too is used to show agreement or more than one. EG: • I thought the concert was great too.

26. Its It’s • Its is a possessive pronoun (third person singular) and doesn’t need an apostrophe EG: • The dog scratched its back • It’s is a contraction sort of it + is OR it + has EG: • It’s a sad day when students forget basic grammar

27. Amount and Number • Number refers to a specific amount, sum or count. EG; • Any number of students in Year 12 can pass this exam. • Amount refers to quantity. Eg: • The amount of resistance surprised him.

28. Between and among; Either and any • Between is used for two objects. eg: • Sue stood between the two goal posts • Among/Amongst is used for more than two. Eg: • Sue ran amongst the opposing team’ back line. • Use either if two things, any if more than two EG: • Any of the five books will do.

29. Each, either, neihter and every • These words take • A singular verb because they imply separate individuals are involved. EG: • Each one of the boys is to be stood down • A singular pronoun • Every (one) person at the scene did his or her duty • It is grammatically incorrect to use their (a third person, possessive plural pronoun) with each, every, either and neither

30. Lie and Lay • Lie has to meanings • To tell a lie • To lie down or recline • Lay means to put or place something down

31. Me and I • When the pronoun is the subject of the verb, use I. When the pronoun is the object of the verb, use me. • She gave the books to Peter and I. X • She gave the books to Peter and me. 

32. Principle and Principal • If the meaning is the sense of being first or most important, use principal. • If it is in the sense of a rule or a standard, use principle.

33. More Tricky Bits

34. Double negatives • When a sentence has a negative meaning, don’t put two negatives together EG: • I did not never do it x • She never used none of those books x • I did not ever do it OR I never did it 

35. Relative pronouns • For things, use which • For people, use who, whom, whose • Who is used when it’s the subject of the following verb • Whom is used when it’s the object of the following verb OR after a preposition • This is the man who followed me. • This is the man whom I followed • This is the man to whom I spoke.

36. Relative pronouns cont… • This is the man whom I spoke to. • This is the man whose car I crashed. • This is the man who I think followed me. • That – defining. Which – non defining. • Each made a list of books that had influenced him. • I always buy his books, which have influenced me.

37. Different… • Is followed by from, not to or than. • Their attitudes are different to/than mine X • Their attitudes are different from mine √