Section 1 at a Glance

1. Section 1 at a Glance • The Roots of American Democracy • The English political heritage of representative government, limited • government, and individual rights influenced the development of • government in the United States. • From the start, the English colonies in North America experimented with forms of self-government. • The English colonists were influenced by ideas from various intellectual traditions, ranging from republicanism to natural rights theory, Judeo-Christian ideals, and the work of Enlightenment thinkers.

2. The Roots of American Democracy Main Ideas American democracy shaped by English heritage Colonists experimented in self-government, Also included many intellectual influences

3. Representative Government Limited Government • Began in 1215 when King John signed Magna Carta • No Longer “No Limit” monarchy • Moved from rule of man to rule of law • Outlined individual rights which king could not violate • Tradition began in 11th century. • Evolved into bicameral, or two-chamber, legislature • Nobles comprised Upper House. • Local representatives participated in House of Commons. English Political Heritage Colonial leaders adapted old ideas, based on English traditions, to a new environment.

4. English Political Heritage (cont’d.) • Individual Rights • 1628: King Charles required to sign Petition of Right • Required monarchs to obtain Parliamentary approval before new taxes, • Also could not unlawfully imprison people • 1689: English Bill of Rights passed • Free speech and protection from cruel and unusual punishment guaranteed • Glorious Revolution established constitutional monarchy.

7. Intellectual Influences In addition to English traditions, ideas were key to transforming loyal English colonists first into revolutionaries and then into founders of a new nation. • Republicanism • Idea of representative government going back to Greece and Rome • Highly values citizen participation, public good, civic virtue • Influences included Aristotle, Machiavelli, de Montesquieu, others • Judeo-Christian Influences • Religious heritage common to both Christianity and Judaism • Law and individual rights of divine origin

8. Intellectual Influences (cont’d.) • Enlightenment Thinkers • Enlightenment—Intellectual movement in 18th century Europe • Classical liberal concerns addressed in Enlightenment • Framers of U.S. Constitution believed in people’s natural rights to life, liberty, and property. • Social contract—People form a government to protect their rights • Economic and civil liberties important as well • Other influences included Adam Smith, Rousseau, Locke and others

9. Section 2 at a Glance • American Independence • After the French and Indian War, the colonists rebelled against British attempts to assert control over the colonies and against new British taxes. • In 1775 the Second Continental Congress called for the writing of a formal Declaration of Independence.

10. The Colonies Become States

11. Early Attempts at Unity Growing Tensions • 1643: New England Confederation formed to defend against threats from Native Americans and Dutch colonies • 1854-1763: French and Indian War spurred new drive toward unity • 1754: Great Britain urged signing of treaty with Iroquois Confederation • Ben Franklin proposed Albany Plan of Union to control trade, raise armies, build settlements, equip fleets • Mid-1700s: colonists used to handling affairs without interference from British • 1760: King George III began to tighten control over colonies • Most colonists viewed selves as loyal subjects of British Crown • Parliament began to think colonies had become too independent • Following French and Indian War, Parliament placed new financial burdens on colonists The Road to Independence The road that led the American colonies to unite with one another and break with Great Britain was long and fraught with conflict.

12. Changes in British Policies • British victorious in French and Indian War, but incurred massive debts • Parliament looked to colonies to help pay for war • Enforced trade restrictions benefiting Britain, MERCANTILISM • Colonists resented being taxed without consent or a representative in Parliament. • The Stamp Act Congress • 1765: Stamp Act: Parliament’s first attempt to tax colonists directly • Required tax stamp on paper goods such as legal documents and newspapers • Colonists responded with protests; in 1765, delegates from 9 colonies sent strong protest to king declaring power to tax should remain with colonial assemblies. • Colonial Protests • 1766: Stamp Act repealed; colonies protested, organized resistance; Boston Massacre • 1773: Boston Tea Party protested American tea trade given to one British company. • 1774: New harsh laws, Intolerable Acts, ended all forms of self-rule in Massachusetts.

15. Summarizing What forms of protest did the colonists use to oppose British policies? Answer(s):boycotts, rallies, pamphlets, letter-writing campaigns

16. The Continental Congress • Compromise • Most colonists held out hope for compromise to roll back taxes. • Virginia and Massachusetts assemblies called for meeting of colonies in Philadelphia. • First Continental Congress • 1774: First Continental Congress passed Declaration and Resolves demanding repeal of Intolerable Acts. • 1775: British rejected demands; British troops clashed with colonial militia at Lexington and Concord—the first armed resistance by colonists. • Second Continental Congress • 1775: Second Continental Congress organized Continental Army, named George Washington as commander • Revolutionary War began as colonists sought independence from Britain • Common Sense of Democracy • 1776: The Common Sense pamphlet argued case for break with England. • Thomas Paine: independence was the only “common sense” for colonists • Saw history of world hanging on outcome of colonies’ rebellion

17. Making Inferences According to Paine, why was independence “common sense”? Answer(s):It was “common sense” to break away from the abuse of English rule.

18. The Declaration of Independence • Armed conflict continued for months before independence officially declared • June 7, 1776: resolution proposed to Second Continental Congress to officially declare independence from Great Britain; resolution passed July 2 • Committee appointed to write formal statement justifying resolution • Thomas Jefferson wrote most of document, drawing on Virginia Declaration of Rights adopted by Virginia House of Burgesses one month earlier • Virginia declaration declared “all men are by nature equally free and independent and have certain inherent rights” that cannot be denied. • Echoed philosophy of John Locke that people have rights to “life, liberty and the pursuit of happiness” • Also echoed idea of government as social contract based on consent of the people • July 4, 1776: Declaration of Independence was adopted. Britain’s thirteen colonies ceased to exist as new nation emerged.

20. Summarizing How did John Locke’s ideas inspire the Declaration of Independence? Answer(s):Locke’s beliefs in natural rights and that a government must have the consent of the people

21. Self-Government Separation of Powers • All new state constitutions established republican governments with strong legislatures with elected representatives. • Voting rights varied from state to state. • Some states granted the right to vote to adult male taxpayers, others had property qualifications; only New Jersey allowed women to vote. • Three branches of government: legislative, executive, judicial • States had real power to govern. • Powers included conducting foreign affairs, declaring war • Most legislatures had two houses. • Some elected governors and judges. The State Constitutions By 1780, each of the 13 newly independent states had adopted its own written constitution. Each tested ideas about how to design a republican government that protected individual rights.

22. The State Constitutions (cont’d.) • Limited Government • Strong legislative bodies reflected general mistrust of monarchy. • Colonists did not grant unlimited power to legislatures. • Annual elections, term limits, separation of powers established as checks • Kept powers of governors deliberately weak, limited term • Individual Rights • Protecting people’s rights seen as way to protect from excesses of government • 1780: Massachusetts constitution included bill of rights to protect individual liberties. • Liberties included trial by jury, freedom of assembly, and speech.

23. Summarizing What ideas about government did state constitutions experiment with? Answer(s): Self-government, limiting the power of the executive branch, separation of powers, and individual rights

24. Section 3 at a Glance • Articles of Confederation • In 1777 the Second Continental Congress passed the first official plan for national government, the Articles of Confederation. • After the Revolutionary War, weaknesses in the Articles led to conflicts among the states, sparking calls for a stronger national government.

25. Articles of Confederation Main Idea The states’ first attempt to build a national government, the Articles of Confederation, proved too weak to last. • Reading Focus • How was the first national government organized under the Articles of Confederation? • What were the weaknesses of the Articles of Confederation? • What events convinced some American leaders that a stronger national government was needed?

26. States Become Nation

27. First National Government • Articles of Confederation • June 1776: new model of government crafted to build “firm league of friendship” among states, retaining “sovereignty, freedom and independence” • June 12, 1777: Articles of Confederation adopted • Had to be ratified before going into force • A Delay in Ratification • Disputes over control of western lands delayed the ratification process. • Small states feared large states with claims to western lands would overpower them. • Articles were changed to allow Confederation control over western lands. • Articles finally ratified in 1781

28. First National Government (cont’d.) • Powers of the National Government • Created weak national government; did not provide for national court system • One-house Congress: power to act on matters of common interest; admit new states; settle disputes; coin money; raise army; declare war; conduct foreign policy • State Powers • States retained all powers not specifically given to Congress • Powers included: ability to collect taxes, enforce national laws • States required to contribute funds to national government as they saw fit

30. Summarizing How did national and state powers differ under the Articles? Answer(s):National powers were limited and specifically cited in the Articles of Confederation. State powers were all the other powers that were not specifically cited.

31. Weaknesses of the Articles • Articles gave Congress key responsibilities, but placed limits that kept it from effectively enforcing laws and policies • Without executive branch, national government lacked means to carry out Congress’s laws • Without national court system, Congress had to rely on state courts to apply national laws • Mostly importantly, Articles denied Congress power to tax • Difficult to raise funds to repay money borrowed during Revolution • Lacked authority to regulate trade • Congress had power to coin money, but not sole power to do so; created barrier to trade, major obstacles to economic development • Congress required to have 9 of 13 states to ratify laws, while only one state could raise objections to block changes in Articles—weakened Congress’s ability to act swiftly and decisively

32. Summarizing What were the weaknesses of the Articles of Confederation? Answer(s):It had no executive or judicial branch; the Confederation could not levy taxes, enforce its laws, or regulate commerce between states; all states had to agree before the Articles could be changed.

33. Northwest Ordinance Dangers and Unrest • 1787: Northwest Ordinance planned for settling Northwest Territory • Included areas now in Illinois, Indiana, Michigan, Ohio, Minnesota and Wisconsin—disputed western lands that had delayed ratification of the Articles • Created system for admitting new states, banned slavery, included bill of rights • Most pressing problem: war debts • 1783: Congress tried to approve tax on imports but act never ratified and government went broke • Postwar depression struck • States pursued own interests, flouting national laws; like “13 sovereignties pulling against each other” Pressures for Stronger Government Its independence secured with the Treaty of Paris in 1783, the United States faced a range of challenges that the national government was ill-equipped to meet. The shortcomings of the government created by the Articles of Confederation would lead to calls for a new plan of government.

35. Pressures for Stronger Government (cont’d.) • Shay’s Rebellion • September 1786: rebellion of Massachusetts farmers facing prospect of losing land • Revolutionary War Captain Daniel Shays led attacks on courthouses to prevent judges from foreclosing on farms. • Shay’s Rebellion swelled to nearly 2,500 by 1787. • Massachusetts legislature asked Congress for help; Congress had no money or forces • Shay’s Rebellion showed how feeble the Confederation Congress was and hastened moves to revise the Articles. • Calls to Revise the Articles • March 1785: Washington invites representatives from Virginia and Maryland to his home at Mount Vernon to discuss resolving trade dispute. • Led to meeting to discuss regulating commerce between all the states • February 1787: James Madison persuades the Confederation Congress to endorse meeting for “purpose of revising the Articles of Confederation.” • May 1787: meeting to strengthen Articles held in Philadelphia

36. Identifying Cause and Effect What events caused leaders to want to revise the Articles of Confederation? Answer(s):Shays’s Rebellion; interstate trade disputes; inability to levy taxes and pay war debts

37. Section 4 at a Glance • The Constitutional Convention • At the Constitutional Convention in Philadelphia, delegates debated competing plans—the Virginia Plan and the New Jersey Plan—for how the new government should be organized. • To finalize the Constitution, delegates compromised on key issues.

38. The Constitutional Convention Main Idea Delegates at the Constitutional Convention compromised on key issues to create a plan for a strong national government. • Reading Focus • Why did the Constitutional Convention draft a new plan for government? • How did the rival plans for the new government differ? • What other conflicts required the Framers to compromise?

39. Crafting a More Perfect Union

40. Drafting a New Constitution • The Convention Meets • May 25, 1787: convention gets underway with representatives of 12 of the 13 states • Rhode Island, fearing weaker state powers, sent no delegation. • Delegates worked to draft the framework for a new government. • Meetings were held in strict secrecy without press or public. • Framers of the Constitution • 55 delegates, known as Framers of the Constitution • One-third had served in the Continental Army. • 8 had signed Declaration of Independence • George Washington, president of convention • James Madison a major influence Delegates gathered in Philadelphia to revise the Articles of Confederation, but ended up with an entirely new plan for government.

42. Drawing Conclusions Why did the delegates want to keep the proceedings quiet? Answer(s):so delegates would be able to speak their minds freely

43. Rival Plans • The Virginia Plan • One of two rival plans for creating a new form of government which emerged at the convention • Based on the ideas of James Madison, The Virginia Plan called for a central government divided into three branches—legislative, executive, judicial—each branch with power to check the others. • Called for strong national government with power to make laws, levy taxes, control interstate commerce, override state laws • Called for bicameral legislature with membership based on state’s population; lower house members elected directly by the people; upper house members selected by state legislatures

44. Rival Plans • The New Jersey Plan • Delegates from small states concerned that Virginia Plan gave too much power to large states • The New Jersey Plan called for a strong central government made up of three branches, but was designed to stick closer to the Articles of Confederation. • Called for unicameral legislature • Each state would have one vote, with equal representation regardless of its population. • Despite support from small states, the plan was ultimately rejected at the Convention.

46. Contrasting How did the Virginia Plan and the New Jersey Plan differ? Answer(s):Representation in both houses in the Virginia Plan’s legislature was based on population, whereas each state received one vote in the New Jersey Plan’s unicameral legislature.

47. The Great Compromise Compromise Over Slavery • June 30, 1787: Roger Sherman presented The Connecticut Compromise (The Great Compromise). • Elements of both plans • Bicameral legislature: lower house number based on state’s population, upper house with two members each • Lower house elected directly by the people; upper house selected by state legislatures • Key points: whether slaves should be counted as part of state’s population; whether importation of enslaved people should be allowed to continue • Counting slaves would greatly increase population and power of southern states • Three-Fifths Compromise: three-fifths of enslaved people would be counted to determine a state’s population. • Compromise on slave trade allowed it to continue protected for the next 20 years Conflict and Compromise For weeks after the rejection of the New Jersey Plan, the Convention was deadlocked. Tempers flared, and at times it seemed the Convention would fall apart. In the end, a series of compromises saved the Convention.

49. Conflict and Compromise (cont’d.) • Presidential Election • Some wanted president elected directly by the people; others by the state legislatures or the national legislature • Compromise: state electors • Number of state electors equal to number of representatives in both houses of Congress; chosen by popular vote • If no candidate received majority vote, House of Representatives would choose president • Finalizing the Constitution • Debated issues, settled disputes, made key decisions during summer of 1787 • Benjamin Franklin said document was as close to perfect as possible, to overlook parts they did not like and “act heartily and unanimously” in signing Constitution • Some delegates refused to sign because it did not include a bill of rights. • 39 delegates from 12 states signed Constitution • Convention adjourned September 17, 1787

50. Summarizing What compromises made the Constitution possible? Answer(s):Compromises included the Three-fifths Compromise, the Great Compromise, compromises over the Atlantic slave trade, and the election of the president.