Middle East as “shatterbelt”

1. Middle East as “shatterbelt” “a large, strategically located region that is occupied by a number of conflicting states and is caught between the conflicting interests of adjoining great powers.” Saul Cohen, 1964

2. Modernizing States – Middle East Questions: Why aren’t more countries in the Middle East democratic? Can Middle Eastern countries modernize without becoming Western? Does economic liberalization lead to political liberalization? What factors encourage change in the Middle East today? What factors impede change in the Middle East today?

3. Impact of WWI on the Middle East • THE single most important political event in the history of the Modern Middle East • per capita losses in Ottoman Empire and Persia greater than in Europe (25%) • creation of the modern state system • ideological glue binding these states was nationalism • political transformation in Palestine and in Persia

5. The Middle East and the West • End of the Ottoman Empire Republic of Turkey • After WWI: mandate system in Gulf States: • Britain  Palestine, Iraq, Transjordan • France  Syria, Lebanon • “Independent” by end of WWII but Western oil interests remained • Cold War and competition for oil meant Middle East remained an area of Western intervention and influence

7. Interwar Period • pro-Nazi sympathies – Iran • Egypt – “independence by degrees.” • Muslim Brotherhood founded – 1928 • non-Muslims continued to control many areas in the ME. • oil discoveries lead to ARAMCO and other concessions. • anti-imperialism and tension in Arab-Israeli dispute and in India/Pakistan

9. World War II and its Impact • Axis search for oil – Battle of el Alamein, 1942. • British White Paper – “Palestine off limits to Jews.” • Intensification of Arab-Israeli Conflict. • Modernizing, “developmental ethos.” • Revolts and Reforms • Independence

12. Modernizing Ideologies“Muslims did not march in single file” • Bourgeois Liberalism/Capitalism – secular, individualistic, democratic, market forces (Liberal modernization theory). • Marxism – state control, command economy, secular. • Islamism – traditional religious values, fundamentalism, conservative • Arab Socialism-secular, anti-colonial, pan-Arab, cultural expression of identity? • Nationalism – secular, ethnicity or loyalty to the state Which has your country attempted?

13. http://www.mideastweb.org/maps.htm “Greater Middle East”

14. Egypt-Nasser, Sadat, Mubarak –Arab Socialism and Pan-Arabism Iraq - Hussein-Baathist Socialism Syria – Asad – Baathist Socialism Libya – Qadafi – Green Socialism Turkey - Secular Republic Iran – Shah, Khomeini, Ahmadinejad –Islamism Saudi Arabia – “Family w/ Flags”, Wahabi Islam http://www.mideastweb.org/maps.htm

15. Four Critical 20th c. Issues“There was no 20th c. in the Middle East” • Domestic – social frustration, “defensive developmentalism,” oil is a curse • Foreign Policy – constant intervention, how to control their own destiny • Political Instability – questions of legitimacy, “top-down rather than bottom-up governments,” patron-client state • Ideological confusion – cultural and moral debates

16. Traditional Identities 1. Birth Identities: Blood = family, clan, tribe Place = neighborhood, village, district, province, country. Religion = may be the only one that transcends the others 2. Allegiance to a ruler – hereditary monarch

17. What is a tribe? (“horde” in Central Asia) • be aware of Eurocentric bias—more “primitive” type of social unit. • “family resemblances”—shared customs, cultures, ideas—practical guide to social actions such as marriage, landholding, rights within the group. • administrative units

18. Tribalism • “is not a single phenomenon rather, it is a persistent social and political force bringing together people for many different purposes.” • from Peoples and Cultures of the Middle East “I against my brother; I and my brother against my cousin; I an my brother and my cousin against the stranger” from an old Arab proverb

19. Nationalism and Islamism Common Elements Both emerged because of similar historical conditions(imperialism) “While the strengthening of the one has led to the strengthening of the other, the failure of one has led to a surge in popularity of the other.” James Gelvin The Modern Middle East

20. Westernization - economic dependency -political subjugation -corruption -returning to “the essence” -creating unity, political and cultural Both draw legitimacy from same assumptions: -adapted to the state system -cultural authenticity -dignity Both address similar concerns:

22. Zones of Islam • Arab – Egypt, Iraq, Syria, Lebanon, Libya, Kuwait, Yemen, Saudi Arabia, Gulf States • Turkish - Turkey • Persian - Iran • South Asia – Pakistan and India • Southeast Asian – Indonesia, Malaysia, Philippines • African - Morocco, Tunisia, Sudan, Algeria, Nigeria • Disapora

23. Islam in politics • Relaxed model – use Islam to legitimize the actual lived experiences today, “live and let live.” • Reform model – use Islam to reform society, or co-opt Islam to serve rulers’ purpose. • Revolutionary model – seek mass mobilization to bring back the age of purity and the creation of a new society.

24. Political Islam-Fundamentalism • “shadow side of modernity” – develops when modernization is well-established, so a reaction against it because: • deep disappointment with modernity • fear of secularism, liberalism and its values • pushing religion from the sidelines back to the center • begins as an internal dispute within own culture/country Ex. opposing westernizing leaders or policies return to a “golden age” – overstressing traditional values Ex. putting women back into veils a reactive form of modernism, often innovative and radical tactics: • withdrawal from society • forming separate communities • fighting for survival • revival of faith • terrorism (minority)

25. Egypt • See ME, pp. 281-293

27. Egypt • overcome tribalism and create a new identity – Arab nationalism • reverse effects of imperialism – anti-imperialism • Arab socialism – Nasser, Arab League • 1950’s Suez Crisis • Muslim Brotherhood, Said Qutb • Sadat – opening (intifah) to the West • Mubarak – “dictatorship w/ a Western face”

28. Iraq 1918-32 British rule Even after independence Britain retained oil rights and kept military bases in Iraq Monarchy military rule Ba’thists 1979 Saddam Hussein took power Saddam suppressed opposition also Kurdish minority

29. Iraq

30. Iraq • Mandate policy • “on paper, a good idea” • Mosul in the North,oil rich (Sunni Kurds) • Tigris/Euphrates/Baghdad, farmland (Shi’a and Sunni) • Basra in the South, oil potential, access to Persian Gulf • Sunni Faysal, from Hussein in Mecca, to rule, with British “support” over Shi’ite majority. • Frequent resistance

31. Iraq Continued: • after WWII, conflict and removal of monarch, Faysal. • British pursue “divide and rule” policy. • Hussein and Ba’athist Socialism • secular • nationalistic • Iraq’s Bismarck? (invasion of Kuwait)

33. Saudi Arabia • conservative Sunni Islam, Wahhabism • “family with flags” Ibn Saud, Ikhwan • large royal family • rentier state due to oil • welfare state

35. Turkey • See pp. 125-132

37. Turkey • Six Arrows • republicanism – Ataturk • nationalism – Turkification • populism – social and educational changes • statism – strong military, central bureaucracy • secularism – no veil, co-opt clerics • reformism – Western alphabet, customs • “Frontier Islam” – pro-European

38. Iran

40. Iran 1940s: Britain and USSR invaded to protect supply routes 1951: Mohammad Mossadeq, proponent of nationalizing oil, appointed Prime Minister 1953: Mossadeq overthrown by US and UK intelligence; installation of pro-Western Shah 1953-79: Iran closely allied with the U.S. Iran was highly secularized and Westernized Shah Muhammad Reza Pahlavi

41. Iranian Revolution 1979 Revolution to overthrow the regime of the Shah Also a cultural revolution for “revolutionary Islam” 1979: Ayatollah Khomeini established Republic of Iran 2002 labeled by Pres. Bush part of “axis of evil” 1979-81: 55 Americans were held hostage

42. Iran now Final victor in Iran-Iraq war? Nuclear ambitions? Broker of regional peace? Upset or balance power vis á vis Israel? President Mahmoud Ahmadinejad

43. Iran • Westernization – Pahlavi, Shah of Iran (White Revolution – 1960’s) • Nationalism – Mossadiq in 1950’s • Khomeini – Islamic Theocracy • Iran a petrostate? • Iran a nuclear state? Regional power?

44. Why Turkey “succeeded” and Iran “failed”. . . • greater resistance to development in Iran than in Turkey b/c Turkey started earlier, so not so strange. • Kemal created government and state at same time; Reza Shah created government in already self-governing state. • Kemal created state during war of national liberation; Pahlavi seized power in a coup.

45. Pakistan See pp. 135-138,

48. Pakistan • Western Liberalism – Jinnah, founder of Pakistan, 1947 • Bhutto – Zia – power of the military • Islamic resurgence - madrasas • Tribalism • Musharraf/Bhutto – patron-client state

49. “What makes 1998 quite different from 1898, and radically different from 1798, is the sense among Muslims that people in Malaysia are directly, immediately, and powerfully affected by what is happening in Sudan or Algeria or Pakistan.” (Humphreys, 146)

50. “For it is often the way we look at other people that imprisons them within their own narrowest allegiances. And it is also the way we look at them that may set them free” (Malouf, In the Name of Identity) What determines your identity?