Unit 2 Communicative Principles & TBLT

1. Unit 2 Communicative Principles & TBLT Objectives: a. to know about the CLT approach. b. to know the definition of communicative competence. c. To know how to evaluate communicative classroom activities d. to understand Task-based Language Teaching

2. 二语和外语 著名语言学家Stern在1993年出版的Issues and Options in Language Teaching一书中是这样说的：Second language refers to “a non-native language learnt and used within one country”, such as English learnt and used in British colonies; whereas foreign language is a “non-native language learnt and used with reference to a speech community outside national and territorial boundaries” like English learnt and used in China.（二语是指这样一种语言——在使用该语言的国家里，作为非母语学习和使用这种语言，如:在英国前殖民地学习和使用的英语；而外语是指这样一种语言——在使用该语言的国家及其属地的领域之外，作为非母语学习和使用的一种语言，如:在中国学习和使用的英语。）

3. Question: Why is CLT highly promoted in FLT?

4. Questions Q1: What are the differences between language used in real life and language taught in the traditional FLT ?Q2: What is the final goal of FLT? And how to achieve it?(P.14-15) • In real life: • The traditional FLT: • The consequence: • the functions and forms • Language skills • The way to use or teach language

5. In terms of functions and forms In real life: Language is used to perform certain communicative functions. The traditional FLT: focuses on forms rather than on functions. The consequence: The learners have learned a lot of sentences or patterns, but they are unable to use them appropriately in real social situations.

6. In real life: We use all skills, including the receptive skills and the productive skills. In terms of language skills The traditional FLT: tends to focus on one or two language skills and ignore the others. The consequence: The learners cannot use the language in an integrated way.

7. In terms of the way to use /teach language In real life: Language is always used in a certain context. The students are puzzled about how to use the language in a particular context. The traditional FLT: tends to isolate language from its context. e.g. the passive voice The consequence:

8. Conclusions The language we teach in traditional FLT is not what we use in real-life communication. The final goal of FLT : to enable the learners to use the foreign language in work or life. we should teach: that part of the language that will be used; in the way that is used in the real world.

9. Communicative Language Teaching (CLT): a possible solution The goal of CLT is to develop students’ communicative competence.

10. 2.2. What is communicative competence? Communicative competence entails knowing not only the language code or the form of language, but also what to say to whom and how to say it appropriately in any given situation. Communicative Competence includes knowledgeof what to say,when , how, where and to say

11. Five main components of communicative competence Hedge (2000: 46-55) discusses five main components of communicative competence: ---linguistic competence ---pragmatic competence ---discourse competence ---strategic competence --- fluency (PP17-19)

12. 1.linguistic competence语言能力是指理解语言本身，语言形式及其意义的能力。语言能力包含了拼写、发音、词汇、构词、语法、句型和语义等方面的能力。语言能力是交际能力的基石，一个不可缺少的组成部份。 2.pragmatic competence语用能力是指学习者在特定的语境中针对特定的对象知道如何合适清晰地表达自己的意图的能力。用 Hymes 的话说就是知道 “何时说，何时不说，和谁，什么时间，什么地点，以什么方式说些什么” 。

13. 3.discourse competence 篇章能力是指在口语或书面语中理解或创造连贯的上下文内容的能力，或称话语能力。 4.strategic competence策略能力是指如何在一个真实的交际情景下保持交际渠道通畅的能力。它包括以下三个方面：1) 在口语和书面语冒险一试的能力；2)使用具体交际策略的能力；3)习得具体交际策略中的常用语言形式。 5. fluency 语言流畅:语言流畅是指自如地把言语单元有效连结起来的能力。流畅涉及语言的输出，多指口语的输出。流畅包括三个方面：1）语义流畅，2）词汇，句法流畅，3）发音流畅。

14. According to Hymes (1979), communicative competence includes four aspects: (p. 19) • knowing whether or not something is formally possible (grammaticality: grammatically acceptable); 知道形式上是否可能 • knowing whether something is understandable to human beings (feasibility);知道是否可行 • knowing whether something is in line with social norms (appropriateness in a social context);知道是否得体 • knowing whether or not something is in fact done (what the language performance entails).知道实施的条件

15. 2.3 Implications for teaching & learning

16. 2.4 Principles for CLT Three principles suggested by Richards and Rodgers(1986:72) 1)Communication principle: Activities that involve real communication promote learning. (e.g. ask/offer help in railway stations) 2)Task principle: Activities in which language is used for carrying out meaningful task promote learning. (e.g. making out class rules) 3)Meaningfulness principle: Language that is meaningful to learner supports the learning process. (e.g. words of animals) 教学原则为指导教学工作的基本准则。1990年《教育大辞典》

17. a weak and a strong version of CLT Howatt（ 1984）指出，交际教学法流派中可分出“温和派”和“激进派”两种： “温和派”强调向学习者提供使用英语进行交际的机会的重要性。将这类交际活动置于更大范围的语言教学中，可以称作“学用英语”（Learning to use English），成为近年来交际教学法的主流。 “激进派”声称语言是通过交际习得的，因此这并不是一个激活已有的知识的问题，而是一个促进掌握语言系统本身的问题。可称作“用英语学英语”（using English to learn it）。

18. Littlewood’s classic book • Littlewood(1981). Communicative Language Teaching. 外研社, 2000

19. Communicative activities By Littlewood (1981) 1.功能互动活动(Functional communicative activities) e.g.: 比较不同图画的异同、推断图画中事件发生的可能顺序、发现地图或图画中的缺失部分等等之类的活动 2.社会交往活动(Social Interaction activities) e.g.:谈话和讨论、对话和角色扮演、模拟、即兴表演和辩论等之类的活动。

20. Functional communicative activities(p. 18) e.g. Identifying pictures Pictures for Student A Pictures for Student B

21. language for the activity: • What colour …? • How many …? • Where …?

22. Learner A You meet B in the street. Learner B You meet A in the street. A: Greet B. B: A: Ask B where he is going. B: A: Suggest somewhere to go together. B: A: Accept B’s suggestion. B: A: B: Greet A. A: B: Say you are going for a walk. A: B: Reject A’s suggestion. Make a different suggestion. A: B: Express pleasure. Social interactional activities(p. 23) e.g. Role-playing through cued dialogues提示性对话

23. Reading and writing are also communicative skills which are worth no less attention than listening and speaking.

24. 2.6 Main features of Communicative activities Rod Ellis’ (1990) six criteria for communicative activities 1. Communicative purpose; (information gap) 2. Communicative desire; (real need) 3. (Focus on ) Content, not form; (message) (Exchanging information, not pattern practice) 4. Variety of language; (not just one language form, free to improvise/create) 5. No teacher intervention; (done by Ss; no correcting/evaluating how Ss do it; assessment is based on the ‘product’ or on communicative purpose rather than on the language.) 6. No material control.

25. For examples, please refer to Wang Qiang’s book (2006) pp. 24-26 Rod Ellis罗德·埃利斯教授曾获得英国伦敦大学博士学位，现为新西兰奥克兰大学教授。主要研究领域为第二语言习得与第二语言教学。Rod Ellis教授在国际应用语言学和第二语言习得领域具有卓著的学术声誉，发表了许多学术专著，编写了一系列英语教程，并在许多国际著名学术刊物上发表了具有学科前沿理论与观点的论文。

26. 2.7 Task-based Language Teaching (TBLT) Task-based Language teaching is, in fact, a further development of CLT. It shares the same beliefs, as language should be learned as close as possible to how it is used in real life. It has stressed the importance to combine form-focused teaching with communication-focused teaching.

27. 2.7.1 Definitions of a task (P27-28) • Michael Long(1985)从非语言的角度把任务定义为：为自己或他人所做的一种无偿或者有偿的事情。如填写表格、买鞋子、订机票等。也就是说，任务是人们在日常生活、工作和游戏中所做的各种各样的事情。 • David Nunan(1989)从交际的角度认为：交际性任务是指课堂上学习者理解、处理、输出目的语或用目的语进行交流的各种学习活动。在这些学习活动中，学习者的注意力主要集中在表达意义上而不是在操练语言形式上。 • Prabhu (1987): 任务是学习者根据所给信息，经过思考等过程，得出某种结论或结果的活动。在完成任务时，学习者能够自己的思考过程进行控制和调整。 Reference: 程晓堂.任务型语言教学 [M].高等教育出版社，2004.

28. 2.7.2 Four components of a task (P28) • a purpose: a clear purpose • a context: a real-world relationship • a process: comprehending, using the language and communicating • a product: nonlinguistic outcome ( Clark, Scarino and Brownell)

29. 任务的主要特点 • 任务是有非常明确目的的活动 • 任务与人的日常生活的语言活动相似 • 任务是学习者理解、运用所学语言进行交流的课堂活动 • 任务应该有一个非语言成果

30. The main features of TBLT • Meaning is primary. 意义的表达是第一位的 • There are some communication problems to solve 需要解决交际中的问题 • There is some sort of relationship to comparable real-world activities. 与实际生活的活动相似 • Task completion has some priority 最受关注的是完成任务 • The assessment of the task is in terms of outcome 任务的评价取决于结果(Skehan: 1998)

31. The differences between Exercise, exercise-tasks and tasks • Task: focuses on the complete act of communication. • Exercise: focuses on individual aspects of language, such as vocabulary, grammar or individual skills. • Exercise-task: consists of contextualized practice of language items.

32. 2.8 PPP & TBLT The Models of the Process of FLT外语教学模式 • The PPP Model: Presentation(讲授)--- Practice(操练)---Production(产出) • Harmer' s ESA Model：Engage（投入）--- Study（学习）--- Activate（运用） • Willis' TBL Model：Pre – task（活动前）--- Task Cycle（任务周期）--- Language Focus（语言点） • The 5-step teaching method : revision(复习) ---Presentation(呈现)---Drill(操练)--- Practice(实践)--- Consolidation(巩固)

33. 任务型教学的实施步骤(P31) Willis认为，“任务型”教学可分为三个步骤：任务前，任务链，语言分析。 (1)任务前(pre-task)——教师引入任务，向学生介绍话题和任务目标，突出关键词语，帮助学生理解任务的指令和做好准备。 (2)任务链(task-cycle)——由做任务（学生分步骤执行任务)、计划（就如何报告任务的结果做准备工作)以及报告（学生代表汇报任务完成情况)三个环节组成 (3)语言焦点(language focus)——也叫语言分析，在教师的引导下做以语言为焦点的活动，如找与话题相关的单词、短语、句型等；由学生独立完成一些语言练习活动；师生共同对重点语言项目进行归纳总结；进行语言项目的其他操练。目的是培养学生的语言意识（language awareness) (参见 《任务型语言教学》中的案例P 110或新课标中的案例）

34. Ellis 的任务型教学模式 Ellis的任务型语言教学模式有三个阶段：任务前（the pre-task phase)，任务中（the during-task phase)和任务后（the post-task phase) 1、任务前：目的是让学生明白要做什么任务，具体结果是什么。活动过程：引导学生完成类似的任务；听/看示范性任务；非任务的准备活动（激活、背景知识、预测/介绍相关词汇） 2、任务中：以小组为单位实施任务 3、任务后：围绕报告任务和语言分析开展。主要活动：重复任务；报告和反思；分析语言形式。 Ellis（2003）认为，任务型语言教学中的任务，只有任务中（while-task)的活动是必要的阶段，任务前和任务后阶段是可有可无的。尽管如此，前、后两阶段在语言学习过程中发挥着重要的作用。

35. The PPP Model & The 5-step teaching method • (A) 3P Model (B) 5-step Model • Warming-up Step I. Revision • Step I. Presentation Step II. Presentation • 1. --- 1. --- • 2. --- 2. --- • 3. --- 3. --- • Step II. Practice Step III. Drills • 1. --- 1. --- • 2. --- 2. --- • 3. --- 3. --- • Step III. Production Step IV. Practice • 1. --- 1. --- • 2. --- 2. --- • 3. --- 3. --- • Homework Step V. Consolidation • Homework

36. 2.9 How to design tasks Step 1 Think about student’s needs, interest, and abilities Step 2 Brainstorm possible tasks Step 3 Evaluating the list Step 4 Choose the language items Step 5 Preparing the materials

37. 2.10 Appropriateness of CLT &TBLT in the Chinese context Some controversies & debates about CLT: The very first &forceful argument is whether it is culturally appropriate; The second problem relates to the design of the syllabus for teaching purposes in the classroom; The third problem is whether such an approach is suitable for all age level of learners or all competence level of learners.

38. Some potential constraints about TBLT • It may not be effective for presenting new language items. Neither may it be appropriate for those context where language exposure is not sufficient and class time is limited. • Time • The culture of learning • Level of difficulty

39. Summary of Unit 2 • Gaps between the use of language in real life and the traditional foreign language teaching pedagogy; • Goal of CTL: Communicative competence; • Features of CLT, and Richards and Rodgers’ three principles of CLT: communicative, task and meaningfulness principles • Communicative activities (Littlewood): • functional communicative activities, and • social interactional activities • Rod Ellis’ six criteria for communicative activities • Task-based Language Teaching (TBLT)

40. Homework 1. What is communicative competence? 2. What are the three principles of communicative language teaching? 3. What are the six criteria for evaluating communicative classroom activities? 4. What is Task-based Language Teaching?

41. More ideas :1.倡导任务型语言教学的意义 •任务型语言教学（TBLT）是80年代外语教学法研究者和第二语言习得研究者在大量研究和实践的基础上提出来的又一有重要影响的语言教学理论。 •很多国家和地区的教学大纲和课程标准都采用了任务形语言教学的途径。 •《国家英语课程标准》也倡导采用任务型语言教学。

42. 2. TBLT产生的两个背景 • 从交际语言教学到任务型教学： 70年代交际语言教学的倡导者提出在真实的语境下表达意思是语言学习最有效的途径。交际语言教学思想提倡： — 以实际的学习任务为主要学习形式 — 以真实的日常语言为主要学习内容 — 以真实的交际目的为学习活动目的 交际语言学习活动（如信息沟活动）被称为“任 务”，而“任务型语言教学”几乎成为交际语言教学 代名词。 这一趋势改变了传统的注重语言形式的语言学习 式和教学方法。

43. 从第二语言习得研究到任务型教学： •对输入理论的置疑——语言输入不能保证语言习得 •交互活动、意义协商、语言输出（interaction, meaning negotiation and output）是语言习得的关键 •只有通过完成任务（perform tasks）学习者才能进行交互活动、意义协商和语言输出 •开始了任务型语言学习模式的研究和实验 — 1990s被成为“The Age of the Task”.

44. 关于任务型语言教学的主要著作 • Second Language Pedagogy: a perspective. OUP, 1987, N. S. Prabhu • Designing Tasks for the Communicative Language Classroom. CUP, 1989, David Nunan. • A Framework for Task-based learning. Longman, 1996, Jane Willis. • Researching Pedagogic Tasks. Longman, 2001, M. Bygate, P. Skehen and M. Swain. • Task-based Language Learning and Teaching. OUP. 2003. Rod Ellis. • 龚亚夫, 罗少茜. 任务型语言教学[M]. 人民教育出版社, 2003. • 程晓堂.任务型语言教学[M]. 高等教育出版社, 2004

45. 3. 关于任务型教学的几个认识问题 1）任务型语言教学是一种思想或途径，而不是具体的方法。 2）任务型语言教学的核心思想是：学生在完成真实、有意义的任务中学习和使用语言。 3）任务型语言教学不是不重视语言知识和语言形式，只是重视语言形式的方式不同。

46. 4.任务的类型 （1）真实任务（ Real-world tasks）：指接近或类似现实生活中各种事情的任务。 • Reply to an email message • Make a list of food and drinks for a picnic • Design a new playground for your school （2）学习型任务（ Pedagogical tasks ）：指为了实现某种学习目的而专门设计的任务。 • Listen to instructions and draw a picture • Find out differences between two pictures. • Write about your favorite sport Richards’ pedagogical tasks: 信息差活动（information-gap tasks); 交流意见的活动(opinion exchange tasks); 问题解决的活动(problem-solving tasks); 拼图任务（jigsaw tasks) 决策任务（decision-making tasks)

47. 5.任务型语言教学的实际操作 （1）说明背景，布置总任务，准备活动 （2）语言准备：词汇、语法、句型等 （3）学生分步骤实施/完成任务：比如小组调查；统计结果；设计图表；分析问题；提出解决问题的方案；动手操作等 （4）汇报结果：展示并说明结果

48. 6. 任务型语言教学存在的问题 • 任务型学习主要是使用语言的活动，那么学生通过什么途径学习语言呢？ • 如何设计适合初学者或低龄语言学习者的任务 • 任务难度很难把握：语言与非语言、语言与智力、理解与输出、思考与操作、流利与精确的平衡 • 系统性和延续性难以把握 • 理论须进一步完善；教学方法尚待进一步实验研究（教师的作用与任务、评价等问题）