Chapter Two: Research Ideas and Hypotheses

1. Chapter Two: Research Ideas and Hypotheses Research Ideas Developing a Research Question Surveying the Literature Formulating the Research Hypothesis Characteristics of a Research Hypothesis

2. Study Focus for Exam One Purchase 3 scantron 886 forms Parts of experiment Research designs, control, types Ethical principles, the IRB, consent, debriefing Library research Purpose of this course

3. Know: participant reactivity replication demand characteristics library resources validity debriefing session reliability descriptive studies population types of studies sample interobserver reliability single-blind study correlation double-blind study extraneous variable dependent variable scholarly data base independent variable Operational definitions

4. Characteristics of good research hypotheses Benefits of studying research methodology Ethical issues Know the abbreviations: APA, IRB, MFT, LCSW Some experiments will be described and you will identify the various elements using scientific terminology such as: control variable, extraneous variable, independent, dependent, control group, experimental group.

5. Good Research Ideas �The closer our project comes to approximating reality, the greater the likelihood of successfully unlocking some of the secrets of nature.� Smith/Davis

6. Why examine past research? Learn what is already known Learn about various variables that have been evaluated Learn what theories have been proposed Discover a question you want to investigate Decide on replication, replication with extension, or original research

7. Developing a research question Survey the research literature Read the actual article, not just the abstract What do you really want to know? Is your interest relevant to the improvement of the quality of life for human beings? I.e. what are the implications of the research findings if the hypothesis is or is not confirmed?

8. Characteristics of a Good Hypothesis Principle of falsifiability: denial of the hypothesis means your hypothesis is justifiably rejected Measurable Includes clear statements of the independent and dependent variables Includes a clear statement of the relationship between the IV and DV

9. Directional versus Non-directional research hypotheses Directional hypothesis: prediction of the specific outcome of an experiment �It was expected that students who studied three hours outside class for every hour in class would out-perform students who studied two or less hours outside class for every hour in class.�

10. Non-directional hypothesis A specific prediction concerning the outcome of an experiment is not made �Scores on the Need for Achievement Scale (N-Ach) for participants who exercised 30 minutes per day for two weeks on stair climbers were expected to be different from scores on the N-Ach scale for participants who did not exercise.

11. Null Hypothesis Prediction of no difference �It was expected that no difference in scores on the Need for Achievement Scale would occur between participants who did or did not exercise 30 minutes per day for two weeks on stair climbers�.

12. Chapter 3: Ethics APA Principles for Ethical Research Institutional Review Board Researcher�s Ethical Obligations After Completion of Research

13. APA Ethical Principles Institutional Approval � The IRB Informed Consent - Must be signed, complete description of procedures, risks, benefits, contribution Deception � not allowed at our level Debriefing � explain the nature and purpose of the study to participants

14. Ethics Post Research This is paramount to your academic and professional success! No plagiarism, ever, period. Never fabricate your data, ever. Never lie with statistics. Always cite references carefully. Consult the manual. Be thorough.

15. Why would you be ethical? Personal integrity Peer respect Professor�s respect Create opportunities Avoid serious consequences

16. Chapter Four: Descriptive, Qualitative and Correlational Methods Descriptive Methods � no independent variable is manipulated Case study � observation of a single person Naturalistic observation � observing behavior without interfering Participant observation � observing while being a part of the interactions in a particular group Ethnography � participant ob. of entire culture Clinical perspective � focus on correcting a behavioral problem

17. Validity The extent to which you are truly measuring what you intend to measure in a study Ex. I.Q. studies Ex. Uncontrolled variables mask the true relationship between variables

18. Reliability The extent to which the results of an experiment can be repeated, verifying the validity of the study

19. Challenges to validity and reliability Reactivity � participants behave differently when aware of being observed, also known as the Hawthorne effect. Situation sampling � observing the same behavior in different situations Interobserver reliability � the extent to which different observers agree

20. Qualitative Research Research conducted in a natural setting that seeks to understand a complex behavior by developing a complete narrative description or that behavior. Ex. Sex workers in London

21. Qualitative Research Examples People�s psychological reactions to the hurricane Interviews with participants after a drug and alcohol treatment program Studies of survivors of Columbine or 911

22. Qualitative Research: Grounded Theory Aimed at building theories through interviews and observations of the real world. Called �grounded theory� because theories developed are �grounded� in reality Like detective work, develop an explanation of behavior through clues Coding is the primary technique

23. Grounded Theory: Coding Open coding � examination, comparison, conceptualization, categorization of data Axial coding � rearranging open coded data in new categories to discover new relationships between variables to create new concepts Selective coding � focus on core category of data and rearranging other categories around this focus This coding leads to understanding of the process (sequence) and transactional systems

24. Transactional Systems An analysis of how actions and interactions relate to their conditions and consequences.

25. Correlational Research Determination of the relationship between two variables Positive correlation � as scores of one variable increase, scores on a second variable also increase � ex. Study hours and grades Negative correlation � scores on one v. go up while the other v. go down � ex. Self-esteem goes up, fear of public speaking goes down Zero correlation � no relationship between the variables

26. Quality work is never an accident.

27. Chapter Four: Nonexperimental Methods II Ex-post facto studies Surveys and Questionnaires Sampling Basic Research Strategies

28. Ex post facto study The variable(s) to be studied are selected after they have occurred. �after the fact� means we study variables that have already expressed their effect. Hypothesis: Employees experience more stress in non-profit than in for profit organizations. Why is this ex post facto? Because she did not manipulate gender or where they worked

29. Surveys and Questionnaires Descriptive Survey: seeks to determine the percentage of the population that has a certain characteristic, holds a certain opinion or does a behavior Pilot testing: REALLY important Demographic data: biographic items

30. Sampling Techniques Population: the complete set of individuals or events you wish to describe or make inferences about Sample: a portion of the population Random sample: every member of the population has an EQUAL CHANCE of being chosen for the sample

31. Random Sampling Without replacement: once chosen the participant or event cannot be sent back to the population for possible inclusion in the next sample With replacement: can be re-selected Stratified random sampling: drawing a sample from a sub-population, text example: college freshmen, seniors, sample from each strata

32. Basic Research Strategies Single-strata: data comes from one strata, i.e. freshmen only Cross-sectional: comparison of two or more groups at the same time, i.e. 5,6,7 and 8 year olds Longitudinal: data from the same group over time, i.e. start at 5 end at 8 Cohort: a group born at the same time

33. Your survey research Controversial topic Neutral target question 9 other questions, balanced pro, con, neutral framing, show me with C, N, and P next to each question Mutually exclusive, exhaustive, forced choice, randomly placed 5 demographic items related to topic

34. Your survey continued� Obtain at least 20 people: call them participants, respondents, or another descriptive term such as students Intro to survey and instructions are all in written form Purpose Sponsorship Time involved Confidentiality

35. Defining your topic Provide respondents with a definition of the topic you are studying Abortion: the termination of pregnancy at the ___trimester of gestation� Gun control: restrictions on the ownership of hand guns and other guns� Stem cell research: the use of fetal cells from abortions to cure diseases�

36. Obtaining Respondents Maximize your time Multiply the time per person by the number of participants you intent to include Obtain data from groups at once in classes for example Instructions are all in written form for uniformity and prevention of bias

37. Pilot test your survey! In class feedback Bias? Attitude first and not demographic? Clarity and placement of target? Biographic last, not attitude? Demographics sensible? Instructions clear? Ethical? Mutually exclusive and exhaustive options? Obtain at least 5 others� feedback

38. Hypotheses It was expected that respondents who were female would be more supportive of _________than males. It was expected that participants who were parents would be expected to be more supportive of ____than respondents who were not parents. Include 5 hypotheses

39. Rationale For each hypothesis state why you expect this result Based on prior research Based on something else? Note: be prepared to elaborate or offer a different explanation in discussion

40. Abstract Intro to study Hypotheses Results Implications 120 words maximum No indentation

41. Introduction Obtain 3 quality references Try to justify your hypotheses with prior research Start with the broad controversy Narrow to your specific investigation

42. Abstract Statement of Hypotheses It was expected that males, those who were parents, respondents whose income was less than $30,000, Hispanics and those who had attended schools with uniforms would be more likely to favor school uniforms than females, non-parents, those with incomes over $30,000, non-Hispanics and respondents who did not wear school uniforms.

43. Results �Data was analyzed in percentages and a 20% difference in the data was considered significant.� Separate surveys by demographics one at a time. Obtain the % for it from each category and conclude acceptance or rejection of hypotheses.

44. Results Report The hypothesis The data Accept, confirm, support or reject, deny, not support each hypothesis Other interesting data

45. Discussion Discuss each hypothesis in a separate paragraph Repeat the result without data What does each result mean? Why did it turn out this way? Suggest modifications in the study Suggest further research

46. Consent, Debriefing, Author note Include all three Author note: includes contact information for readers to discuss your study with you or obtain a copy of it

47. Tips for Success Get relevant sources Pilot test for sure! Spend time learning what your results mean Submit your paper to Joe or Heather via e-mail or at the study session on Wednesdays at 3:30. Use the Writing Center in FH 224 Do not say �almost significant�

48. Tips continued� Accept your results Prepare in advance to explain why you obtained these results when they do or do not confirm your hypotheses Prepare in advance to explain the implications of your study: why does knowing this matter? To whom?

49. Your experiment Be planning your experiment At least two groups One I.V. that is manipulated!!!!! What groups do you have access to? Your parents, friends groups? Work? What are your interests, hobbies, curiosities?

50. Being Efficient Participant considerations Availability Finances Time Special permissions take time Get the proposal to me as soon as you can Start the paper right away