The Basics of Philosophy

1. Moscow State Instituteof International Relations (MGIMO-University)School of Government and International Affairs& Alexander ShishkinDepartment of Philosophy The Basics of Philosophy Part VEpistemocentric Philosophy Lecture 11Francis BaconSubstantiation of Empiricism

2. Francis BaconSubstantiation of Empiricism • The Idols of the Mind • The Idols of the Tribe • The Idols of the Cave • The Idols of the Marketplace • The Idols of the Theatre • The Origins and Nature of Scientific Knowledge • Experience as the Source of Knowledge • Experience and Experiment • Experiments of Light and Experiments of Fruit • Induction and the Tables of Discovery • From the Universal through the Necessary to the Essential • Tables of Presence • Tables of Absence • Tables of Comparison or of Degrees • Modus tollendo ponens

3. Bornon January 22, 1561in London Student at Trinity College, Cambridge (1573–1575) Member of the English Embassy to France (1576 – 1579) Barrister (since 1579) Member of Parliament(since 1584) Attorney General (since 1613) Lord Keeper of the Great Seal(since 1617) Lord Chancellor (1618–1621) Died on April 9, 1626 inLondon Francis Bacon(1561–1626) Cambridge London Paris

4. Francis Bacon(1561–1626) Principal Writings • Essays, or Counsels Civil and Moral(1sted., 1597; 2nd ed., 1612, 3rded., 1625) • The Wisdom of the Ancients(1609) • The Great Instauration • Of the Proficience and Advancement of Learning, Divine and Human(1605) • The New Organon(1620) • History of the Winds(1622) • History of Life and Death(1623) • New Atlantis(1623/1624?) Louis François RoubillacBust of Sir Francis Bacon(1751, Trinity College, Cambridge)

5. The Idols of the Mind There are four classes of Idols which beset men's minds. Idols of the tribe Idols of the cave Idols of the marketplace Idols of the theatre

6. The Idols of the MindThe Idols of the Tribe The Idols of the Tribe have their foundation in human nature itself, and in the tribe orrace ofmen. For it is a false assertion that the sense of man is the measure of things.On thecontrary, all perceptions as well of the sense as of the mind are according to the measure ofthe individual and not according to the measure of the universe. And the humanunderstanding is like afalse mirror, which, receiving raysirregularly, distorts and discolors the nature of things by mingling its own nature with it. Francis Bacon. The New Organon.

7. The Idols of the MindThe Idols of the Tribe • Typical examples of Idols of the Mind: • Human nature used as the explanatory model for (“the measure” of) all things as manifestation of the general principle of understanding (explaining) the unknown by analogy to the well (best) known. • The assumption that objects of inquiry are characterised by greater order, regularity and expediency than is the case. • Overemphasis on rare, extraordinary and wonderful works of nature, not necessarily representative or particularly revealing.

8. The Idols of the MindThe Idols of the Cave The Idols of the Cave are the idols of the individual man. For everyone (besides the errorscommon to human nature in general) has a cave or den of his own, whichrefracts anddiscolors the light of nature, owing either to his own proper and peculiar nature; or to hiseducation andconversation with others; or to the reading of books, and the authority of thosewhom he esteems and admires; or to the differences of impressions, accordingly as they takeplace in a mind preoccupied and predisposed or in a mind indifferent and settled; or the like. Francis Bacon. The New Organon.

9. The Idols of the MindThe Idols of the Cave • Typical examples of Idols of the Cave: • People tend to attribute greater value to objects of their endeavour or to things they are accustomed to. • “Some minds are stronger and apter to mark the differences of things, others to mark their resemblances.” • “The steady and acute mind can fix its contemplations and dwell and fasten on the subtlest distinctions; the lofty and discursive mind recognizes and puts together the finest and most general resemblances.” • “There are found some minds given to an extreme admiration of antiquity, others to an extreme love and appetite for novelty; but few so duly tempered that they can hold the mean, neither carping at what has been well laid down by the ancients, nor despising what is well introduced by the moderns.”

10. The Idols of the MindThe Idols of the Marketplace There are also Idols formed by the intercourse and association of men with each other, whichI call Idols of the Market Place, on account of the commerce and consort of men there. For itis by discourse that men associate, and words are imposed according to the apprehension ofthe vulgar. And therefore the ill and unfitchoice of words wonderfully obstructs the Understanding.<…> … Wordsplainly force and overrule the understanding, and throw all intoconfusion, and lead men awayinto numberless empty controversies and idlefancies. Francis Bacon. The New Organon.

11. The Idols of the MindThe Idols of the Marketplace • The main types of Idols of the Marketplace: • Superficial and artificial distinctions drawn in common discourse (unfit choice of names for existing things): • verbal identification of things and natures that are essentially different (e.g. “earth” as one of “the four substances”); • verbal differentiation of things and natures that are essentially identical (e.g. ice, water and steam). • Invention of names for things that do not exist (e.g. Fortune, the Prime Mover, and the like) leading to pointless, meaningless and futile debate.

12. The Idols of the MindThe Idols of the Theatre Lastly, there are Idols which have immigrated into men's minds from the various dogmas of philosophies, and also from wrong laws of demonstration. These I call Idols of the Theater, because in my judgment all the received systems are but so many stage plays, representing worlds of their own creation after an unreal and scenic fashion. Francis Bacon. The New Organon.

13. The Origins and Nature of Scientific KnowledgeExperience as the Source of Knowledge Empiricism(Gr., ἐμπειρία,experience)is a theory that all knowledge originates in experience. Experience(Lat., experientia,act of trying) is direct observation of or participation in events as a basis of knowledge. Adapted from TheMerriam-Webster's Dictionary.

14. The Origins and Nature of Scientific KnowledgeExperience as the Source of Knowledge There are and can be only two ways of searching into and discovering truth. The one flies from the senses and particulars to the most general axioms, and from these principles, the truth of which it takes for settled and immovable, proceeds to judgment and to the discovery of middle axioms. And this way is now in fashion. The other derives axioms from the senses and particulars, rising by a gradual and unbroken ascent, so that it arrives at the most general axioms last of all. This is the true way, but as yet untried. Francis Bacon. The New Organon.

15. The Origins and Nature of Scientific KnowledgeExperience as the Source of Knowledge Both ways set out from the senses and particulars, and rest in the highest generalities; but the difference between them is infinite. For the one just glances at experiment and particulars in passing, the other dwells duly and orderly among them. The one, again, begins at once by establishing certain abstract and useless generalities, the other rises by gradual steps to that which is prior and better known in the order of nature. Francis Bacon. The New Organon.

16. The Origins and Nature of Scientific KnowledgeExperience as the Source of Knowledge It cannot be that axioms established by argumentation should avail for the discovery of new works, since the subtlety of nature is greater many times over than the subtlety of argument.But axioms duly and orderly formed from particulars easily discover the way to new particulars, and thus render sciences active. Francis Bacon. The New Organon.

17. The Origins and Nature of Scientific KnowledgeExperience as the Source of Knowledge Deduction(Lat. deductio)is inference about particularswhich follows necessarily fromgeneral or universal premises. Induction(Lat. inductio)is inference of a probablegeneralized conclusion from a finite number ofparticular instances. In deduction(1) the argument is from generals to particulars;(2) the conclusion is necessary. In induction(1) the argument is from particulars to generals;(2) the conclusion (except a number of trivial cases)is only probable.

18. The Origins and Nature of Scientific KnowledgeExperience as the Source of Knowledge A universal theory (“the most general axioms”) Adjustmentof the universaltheory(possible due tothe incompletenessof the initialinduction) Deduction Hasty (“flying”) generalisationthroughincompleteinduction A middle-level theory(“intermediate axioms”) Deductiveexplanationof facts Adjustment of themiddle-level theory(to make it “fit” the facts) F A C T S The wrong way

19. The Origins and Nature of Scientific KnowledgeExperience as the Source of Knowledge Theories derived through hasty generalisation and adjusted ad hoc do not yield new factsand are thus scientifically worthless.... … since the subtlety of nature is greater many times over than the subtlety of argument.

20. The Origins and Nature of Scientific KnowledgeExperience as the Source of Knowledge The true way A universal theory (“the most general axioms”) Further generalisation (“gradual ascent”) A middle-level theory(“intermediate axioms”) A middle-level theory(“intermediate axioms”) Deduction “Trueinduction” of new facts Deduction “Trueinduction” of new facts F F A A C C T T S S X Y X Y

21. The Origins and Nature of Scientific KnowledgeExperience and Experiment But the best demonstration by far is experience, if it go not beyond the actual experiment. For if it be transferred to other cases which are deemed similar, unless such transfer be made by a just and orderly process, it is a fallacious thing. But the manner of making experiments which men now use is blind and stupid. And therefore, wandering and straying as they do with no settled course, and taking counsel only from things as they fall out, they fetch a wide circuit and meet with many matters, but make little progress... Francis Bacon. The New Organon.

22. The Origins and Nature of Scientific KnowledgeExperiments of Light and Experiments of Fruit … Even as in the business of life a man's disposition and the secret workings of his mind and affections are better discovered when he is in trouble than at other times, so likewise the secrets of nature reveal themselves more readily under the vexations of art than when they go their own way. Francis Bacon. The New Organon.

23. The Origins and Nature of Scientific KnowledgeExperiments of Light and Experiments of Fruit … Then only will there be good ground of hope for the further advance of knowledge when there shall be received and gathered together into natural history a variety of experiments which are of no use in themselves but simply serve to discover causes and axioms, which I call Experimenta lucifera, experiments of light,to distinguish them from those which I call fructifera, experiments of fruit. Francis Bacon. The New Organon.

24. Induction and the Tables of DiscoveryThe Universal – the Necessary – the Essential • Aristotelian logiclinked together the three principal features of scientific knowledge, viz. • the universal, • the necessary, • the essential. • For all Bacon’s criticism of the Aristotelian (scholastic) logic, this linkage is at the core of the Baconian method. • Whatever isessentialto a particular nature, isnecessary. • Whatever isnecessaryto a particular nature, must beuniversally presentwhenever that nature is present. • Whatever may beabsentwhere a particular nature is present, is not necessaryand, hence, not essential to that nature.

25. Induction and the Tables of DiscoveryThe Universal – the Necessary – the Essential Essential means Necessary means Universal

26. Induction and the Tables of DiscoveryThe Universal – the Necessary – the Essential Non-universal means Unnecessary means Unessential If everything non-universal (i.e.unnecessary,i.e.unessential) is eliminated,what is left is universal (i.e.necessary, i.e.essential).

27. Induction and the Tables of DiscoveryTables of Presence The investigation of forms proceeds thus: a nature being given, we must first of all have a muster or presentation before the understanding of all known instances which agree in the same nature,though in substances the most unlike. And such collection must be made in the manner of a history, without premature speculation, or any great amount of subtlety. <…> This table I call the Table of Essence and Presence. Francis Bacon. The New Organon.

28. Induction and the Tables of DiscoveryTables of Presence • Instances Agreeing in the Nature of Heat: • The rays of the sun, especially in summer and at noon. • The rays of the sun reflected and condensed, as between mountains, or on walls, and most of all in burning glasses and mirrors. • Fiery meteors. • Burning thunderbolts. • Eruptions of flame from the cavities of mountains. • All flame. • Ignited solids. • Natural warm baths. • Liquids boiling or heated. • Hot vapors and fumes, and the air itself, which conceives the most powerful and glowing heat if confined, as in reverbatory furnaces. • Certain seasons that are fine and cloudless by the constitution of the air itself, without regard to the time of year. • Air confined and underground in some caverns, especially in winter.

29. Induction and the Tables of DiscoveryTables of Presence • Instances Agreeing in the Nature of Heat: • All villous substances, as wool, skins of animals, and down of birds, have heat. • All bodies, whether solid or liquid, whether dense or rare (as the air itself is), held for a time near the fire. • Sparks struck from flint and steel by strong percussion. • All bodies rubbed violently, as stone, wood, cloth, etc., insomuch that poles and axles of wheels sometimes catch fire; and the way they kindled fire in the West Indies was by attrition. • Green and moist vegetables confined and bruised together, as roses packed in baskets; insomuch that hay, if damp, when stacked, often catches fire. • Quicklime sprinkled with water. • Iron, when first dissolved by strong waters in glass, and that without being put near the fire. And in like manner tin, etc., but not with equal intensity. • Animals, especially and at all times internally; though in insects the heat is not perceptible to the touch by reason of the smallness of their size.

30. Induction and the Tables of DiscoveryTables of Presence • Instances Agreeing in the Nature of Heat: • Horse dung and like excrements of animals, when fresh. • Strong oil of sulphur and of vitriol has the effect of heat in burning linen. • Oil of marjoram and similar oils have the effect of heat in burning the bones of the teeth. • Strong and well rectified spirit of wine has the effect of heat, insomuch that the white of an egg being put into it hardens and whitens almost as if it were boiled, and bread thrown in becomes dry and crusted like toast. • Aromatic and hot herbs, as dracunculus, nasturtium vetus , etc., although not warm to the hand (either whole or in powder), yet to the tongue and palate, being a little masticated, they feel hot and burning. • Strong vinegar, and all acids, on all parts of the body where there is no epidermis, as the eye, tongue, or on any part when wounded and laid bare of the skin, produce a pain but little differing from that which is created by heat. • Even keen and intense cold produces a kind of sensation of burning: “NecBoreæpenetrabilefrigusadurit.” • Other instances.

31. Induction and the Tables of DiscoveryTables of Presence 1 A B C D E 2 B C D E F 3 C D E F G 4 D E F G H 5 E F G H I … the rejection or exclusion of the several natures which are not found in some instance where the given nature is present…

32. Induction and the Tables of DiscoveryTables of Absence Secondly, we must make a presentation to the understanding of instances in which the given nature is wanting; because the form … ought no less to be absent when the given nature is absent, than present when it is present. But to note all these would be endless. The negatives should therefore be subjoined to the affirmatives, and the absence of the given nature inquired of in those subjects only that are most akin to the others in which it is present and forthcoming. This I call the Table of Deviation, or of Absence in Proximity. Francis Bacon. The New Organon.

33. Induction and the Tables of DiscoveryTables of Absence Instancesof Presence Instancesof Absence in Proximity 1 The rays of the sun, especially in summer and at noon. The rays of the moon and of stars and comets are not found to be hot to the touch… 2 The rays of the sun reflected and condensed, as between mountains, or on walls, and most of all in burning glasses and mirrors. The rays of the sun in what is called the middle region of the air do not give heat; for which there is commonly assigned not a bad reason, viz., that that region is neither near enough to the body of the sun from which the rays emanate, nor to the earth from which they are reflected. And this appears from the fact that on the tops of mountains, unless they are very high, there is perpetual snow. 3 Fiery meteors. Comets (if we are to reckon these too among meteors) are not found to exert a constant or manifest effect in increasing the heat of the season, …

34. Induction and the Tables of DiscoveryTables of Absence Instancesof Presence Instancesof Absence in Proximity 4 Burning thunderbolts. There are certain coruscations which give light but do not burn. And these always come without thunder.. 5 Eruptions of flame from the cavities of mountains. Eructations and eruptions of flame are found no less in cold than in warm countries, as in Iceland and Greenland. In cold countries, too, the trees are in many cases more inflammable and more pitchy and resinous than in warm; as the fir, pine, and others.. 6 All flame. … the ignisfatuus (as it is called), which sometimes even settles on a wall, has not much heat, perhaps as much as the flame of spirit of wine, which is mild and soft.

35. Induction and the Tables of DiscoveryTables of Absence Instancesof Presence Instancesof Absence in Proximity 7 Ignited solids. … rotten wood … shines by night and yet is not found to be hot... 8 Natural warm baths. In what situation and kind of soil warm baths usually spring has not been sufficiently examined; and therefore no negative is subjoined. 9 Liquids boiling or heated. … we find no tangible liquid which is warm in its own nature and remains so constantly; but the warmth is of an adventitious nature, superinducedonly for the time being,...

36. Induction and the Tables of DiscoveryTables of Absence 1 Pres. A B C D E Abs. A B C D K 2 Pres. B C D E F Abs. B C D L F 3 Pres. C D E F G Abs. C D M F G 4 Pres. D E F G H Abs. D N F G H 5 Pres. E F G H I Abs. O F G H I … the rejection or exclusion of the several natures which … are found in some instance where the given nature is absent…

37. Induction and the Tables of DiscoveryTables of Comparison or of Degrees Thirdly, we must make a presentation to the understanding of instances in which the nature under inquiry is found in different degrees,more or less; which must be done by making a comparison either of its increase and decrease in the same subject, or of its amount in different subjects, as compared one with another. <…> This Table therefore I call the Table of Degrees or the Table of Comparison. Francis Bacon. The New Organon.

38. Induction and the Tables of Discovery We must make, therefore,a complete solution and separation of nature,not indeed by fire, but by the mind,which is a kind of divine fire. The first work, therefore, of true induction (as far as regards the discovery of forms) is the rejection or exclusion of the several natures which are not found in some instance where the given nature is present, or are found in some instance where the given nature is absent, or are foundto increasein some instance when the given nature decreases, or to decrease when the given nature increases. Then indeed after the rejection and exclusion has been duly made, there will remain at the bottom, all light opinions vanishing into smoke, a form affirmative, solid, and true and well defined.

39. Induction and the Tables of DiscoveryModus tollendo ponens Modus tollendo ponens is a mood of the disjunctive syllogism in which the first premise is a disjunctive proposition, (i.e. a proposition in which either the predicate is said to belong to only one of a number of subjects, or, more typically, only one of a number of predicates is said to belong to the subject, or, in more complex cases, two or more categorical propositions are taken as alternatives); the second premise is a categorical proposition that denies one (or all but one) of the alternatives (disjuncts); the conclusionaffirms the other (the one remaining) alternative. S P Q either or is S P is not S Q is Tollendo ponens is valid only if the disjunctive premise is exhaustive, i.e. if no alternative is omitted.

40. Induction and the Tables of DiscoveryModus tollendo ponens S P Q Clara’s corals were stoleneither by Karl or by Karlson either or is S P Clara’s corals were not stolenby Karl is not S Q Clara’s corals were stolenby Karlson is Tollendo ponens is valid only if exhaustive, i.e. if none of the alternatives is omitted. The inference is valid provided we have good reason to exclude all other personsfrom the list of suspects.

41. Induction and the Tables of DiscoveryModus tollendo ponens • Tollendo ponens is a key element of Bacon’s inductive logic. • Tollendo ponens is a deductive inference, and it is its deductivenature that makes the conclusion necessary:induction (except trivial cases) yields only probable truths. • But if the key logical procedure is deductive, why call Bacon’s logic inductive? • Bacon’s logic is appropriately called inductive because compilation of the disjunctive first premise is an inductive operation. • If the first premise fails to take account of all alternatives, the conclusion is not necessary. • It is, therefore, vital to consider as numerous and as various instances of the studied nature as possible (hence the need for experiments): otherwise one risks to miss an element that might prove essential. • For even if the researcher is so lucky as to stumble upon the sought-out essential element, histheory will still be wanting.

42. Questions?