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抗生素

抗生素. 一、 History 1. 神農嚐百草,雲南白藥-- chemotherapy 2. Paul Ehrlich(a chemist) — 真 正使化學治療成為 一門科學的人。 Salvarsan a. 提出 selective toxicity idea b. 發現某些 dyes 與 tissue 有親和力,如果這些 dyes 又具有殺菌力豈不妙哉!可惜沒有進 一步發現。 3. 1935 年 Domagk 發現了磺胺劑 (sulfonamides) ,脫離

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抗生素

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  1. 抗生素 一、History 1. 神農嚐百草,雲南白藥--chemotherapy 2. Paul Ehrlich(a chemist)—真正使化學治療成為 一門科學的人。Salvarsan a. 提出selective toxicity idea b. 發現某些dyes 與tissue有親和力,如果這些 dyes又具有殺菌力豈不妙哉!可惜沒有進 一步發現。 3. 1935年Domagk發現了磺胺劑(sulfonamides),脫離 了dye的觀念,開始從organic compounds中找drug。

  2. Penicillin之發現

  3. 抗生素 4. Alexander-Fleming 1928-1929年間,發現在實驗室中的培養基(S. aureus),被Penicillium污染,周圍出現Clear zone—Penicilln。 5. 1940年,Florey and Chain將penicillin分離出來並在美國大量製造。 6. Streptomycin, Tetracycline, Chloramphenicol相繼被發現,不僅在Fungi,在Bacteria如Streptomyces亦可產生。 7. Fermentation

  4. 抗生素發展 • 大量生產 • 提高單位產量 • Screening—某些微生物可產生多種抗生素,但比率不同,必須能篩選出我們所要的一種。 • 淘汰—目前抗生素有4,000-5,000種,但市面上僅有100多種,不良的已經淘汰。 • R&D

  5. 半合成抗生素 • 某些活性差,產量少之抗生素,如cephalosporins, rifamycin等,可以用chemical modification的方法,將其structure稍加改變而獲得改善--轉弱為強(new antibiotics, eg. cephalosporin→cephaloridine; rifamycin→rifampicin • 以penicillin為例 a. b-lactam b. thiazolidine c. 6-APA (6-amino-penicillanic acid)

  6. 6 1 5 a 2 b 4 3 6-APA

  7. Semi-synthetic penicillins Culture of Penicillium Chrysogenum + phenylacetic acid Penicillin G (benzyl penicillin) Remove side chain 6-Aminopenicillanic acid (6-APA) ROCl Semi-synthetic penicillins e.g., Ampicillin—a-aminobenzyl P Methicillin—dimethoxyphenyl P

  8. 半合成抗生素之優點 • Extended spectrum—殺菌範圍增加了。 eg. Penicillin本來只能殺Gram(+),但改良後ampicillin可殺Gram (-)。 • Resistance to certain bacteria eg.methicillin可以抑制會產生penicillinase的細菌。 • Easy to take eg.penicillin G 多用於注射,若口服會被胃酸破壞。而penicillin V,cephalexin則可口服,較方便。 • Improve pharmacokinetic properties eg. Amoxicillin易進入blood中,血中濃度提高,增加殺菌能力。 • Increase potency

  9. 抗生素分類(依照 American Hospital Formulary Service, 1996) • 胺基酸糖體類 • 抗黴菌類 • 頭孢子菌類 • 青黴素、頭孢子菌類除外之b-丙醯胺抗生素類 eg. carbapenems, Meropenem, Aztreonam (monobactam) • 氯黴素類 • 巨環類 • 青黴素類 • 四環素類 • 其他抗生素類

  10. How do antibiotics work? • Work on cell wall—eg. Penicillin, cephalosporin, cycloserine, polypeptides (eg.bacitracin), vancomycin. 細胞壁的結構與合成 • 細胞壁係由peptidoglycan(又稱mucopeptide or murein)形成之complex polymer;包括 polysaccharide & polypeptides二components. • polysaccharides=N-acetyglucosamine + acetymuramic acid.

  11. Cycloserine抑菌機制 L-Ala D-Ala 2 D-Ala D-alanyl-D-alanine D-alanyl-D-alanine synthase Ala racemase cycloserine

  12. How do antibiotics work? • Work on cell wall Penicillin之結構與細胞壁合成時peptidoglycan strand 之D-alanyl-D-alanine相類似,因此,penicillin與合成時之酵素(transpeptidase)形成acyl enzyme intermediate,阻斷酵素的功能。亦就是說,阻礙了細胞壁合成過程中之alanine transpeptidation步驟。 b-lactam antibiotics 對G(+)和G(-)作用效果不同,主要是cell wall 的結構不同所致。 1. Peptidoglycan的量 2. Presence of receptors 3. Presence of lipids 4. Enzyme activity

  13. How do antibiotics work? • Work on cell membrane eg. Polymyxins (polymyxin B)—作用在phosphatidylethanolamine (G-) eg. Polyenes (nystatin, amphotericin B)—作用在sterol (fungi)。 • Inhibition of protein synthesis DNA→RNA protein Bacteria: 70S (50S + 30S) Mammalian: 80S (60S + 40S) ribosome

  14. How do antibiotics work? • Inhibition of protein synthesis 為何antimicrobial drugs能抑制細菌蛋白質合成而不太影響哺乳類蛋白質合成? • Subunit 不同 • Chemical composition不同 • Functional specificities不同

  15. How do antibiotics work? • Inhibition of protein synthesis eg. Aminoglycosides: Streptomycin, kanamycin, neomycin, gentamicin, tobramycin, amikacin等。其抑菌機制可歸納如下: a. 附於30S 上 b. 阻止peptide formation中之initiation步 驟。 c. mRNA帶來的信息被唸錯。 d. 將polysome拆散變成monosomes. 例如:有些細菌改變了ribosomes導致對streptomycin具有抗性。

  16. How do antibiotics work? • Inhibition of protein synthesis eg. Tetracyclines: Tetracycline, chlorotetracycline(金黴素), oxytetracycline(土黴素), doxycycline, minocycline等。基本上tetracyclines之作用機制為: a. 附於30S 上 b. 阻礙aminoacyl-tRNA的anticodon binding. 大多數tetracycline resistance菌株係由於改變細胞膜的通透性、或改變抗生素所不活化的酵素所致。真核細胞的ribosome亦對tetracycline敏感,但是該抗生素不能穿過真核細胞的細胞膜,所以in vivo上不能抑制真核蛋白的合成。

  17. How do antibiotics work? • Inhibition of protein synthesis eg. Chloramphenicol:毒性較大,因為mitochondrial ribosomes are sensitive to the antibiotic. 作用機制: a. 結合到50S ribosomal subunit. b. specifically inhibits the peptidyl transferase reaction.

  18. How do antibiotics work? • Inhibition of protein synthesis a. 結合到50S ribosomal subunit. b. specifically inhibits the peptidyl transferase reaction. eg. Macrolides: erythromycin, leucomycin, oleandomycin. eg. Lincomycin, clindamycin

  19. How do antibiotics work? • Inhibition of nucleic acid synthesis eg. actinomycin D:The mechanism of the inhibition of RNA synthesis is caused by the insertion (intercalation) of its phenoxazone ring between two G-C base pairs, with the side chains projecting into the major groove of the double helix, hydrogen bonded to guanine residues. RNA polymerase binding to DNA that contains actinomycin D is only slightly impaired, but RNA chain elongation in both eukaryotes and prokaryotes is blocked. eg. mitomycin C:對DNA有特異的阻礙作用,可使DNA崩解。 eg. Rifampin:抑制細菌mRNA合成

  20. How do antibiotics work? • Inhibition of purine and pyrimidine synthesis eg.Azaserine:與L-Glutamic acid的化學結構相似。Inhibition is irreversible, with formation of a covalent bond between the inhibitor and an amino acid side chain at the catalytic site. The specific reactions inhibited are those catalyzed by glutamine PRPP aminotranferase and phosphoribosyl-N-formylglycinamidine synthase in the de novo purine pathway and carbamoyl phosphate synthase and CTP synthase in the pyrimidine pathway.

  21. How do antibiotics work? • Affecting energy metabolism:抑制oxidative phosphorylation以阻礙能的代謝作用抑制細菌的生長。 eg. Antimycin, gramicidin S, oligomycin oligomycin:act directly on the ATP-synthase that converts ADP and Pi to ATP. antimycin A:加入antimycin A時,cytochrome B變為reduced state; cytochrome C 變為oxidized state

  22. How do antibiotics work? • 抑制細菌之主要代謝物(metabolite):此metabolite為細菌代謝過程的必需物質。eg. Sulfa抑制PABA (para-aminobenzoic acid,對氨安息香酸)。

  23. Synergism and Antagonism • Synergism(協和性):某一種藥物能加強另一種藥物作用。 eg 1. clavulanic acid + amoxicillin 其中clavulanic acid 會抑制b-lactamase活性。amoxicillin抑制cell wall 的合成。若二者同時使用效果更佳。 eg 2.sulfonamide (5 parts) + trimethoprim (1 part) = co-trimoxazole 具有synergism 用於尿道感染之治療。 sulfonamide:與PABA相似,與之競爭和Enzyme的作用,使folic acid 無法生成,抑制細菌的生長。動物不會合成folic acid (直接攝取)。 • Antagonism(拮抗性):兩種藥物一同使用時,其中一種會干擾另一種藥物之作用。

  24. 細菌抗藥性的種類 一、產生分解抗生素的酵素 eg. S. aureus產生b-lactamase 二、改變通透性 eg. tetracycline 在susceptible cell內聚積,而不在resistant cell 內聚積。 三、改變藥物所結合之標的物(target)結構。 eg. aminoglycoside-resistant cell, 改變 30S上受體結構。 四、改變代謝途徑 eg. sulfonamide-resistant bacteria 不再合成folic acid,所以用不到 PABA。

  25. 細菌抗藥性的種類 五、酵素的性質改變 eg. sulfonamide-susceptible cells 其tetrahydropteroic acid synthetase與 sulfonamides具有較強之結合力;而在resistant cells,該enzyme與PABA有 較強之結合力。

  26. 抗藥性從何而來? 一、突變 二、從plasmid得到resistant gene (RTF: Resistance Transfer Factor).

  27. Structures of Cephalosporins and Cephamycins

  28. Penicillin G之分子結構 6-APA Can be substituted with procaine, benzathine, or potassium

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