Chapter 6

1. Chapter 6 Occupational and Organizational Choice

2. Key Points in this Chapter Occupational Choice Theories of Occupational Choice Guidelines for Effective Occupational Decision Making Organizational Choice: The Process of Entering an Organization Theories of Organizational Choice Organizational Actions During the Entry Process Individual Actions During the Entry Process

3. Occupational Choice This chapter examines two critical steps in the career management process. The occupational choice process Organizational entry The dynamics of occupational selection can be relevant at each career stage. The choice of an appropriate occupation (either initially or as a career change) is a pivotal task in the career management process, one that can take place at any point in one’s life.

4. Theories of Occupational Choice An occupation is a group of similar jobs found in several establishments. This definition distinguishes a specific job in a particular organization from the broader notion of an occupation. The book presents four significant themes that can help one understand the manner in which people make occupational choices and appreciate the variety of psychological, social, economic, and cultural factors that enter into occupational decisions.

5. Theories of Occupational Choice Occupational Choice as a Matching Process Most theories of occupational choice contend that a person, consciously or unconsciously, chooses an occupation that “matches” his or her unique set of needs, motives, values, and talents. Trait and factor theory proposes that a person would identify his or her abilities, needs, interests, and values; select appropriate career goals; and then choose an occupation thought to be most compatible with these goals. John Holland’s theory proposes that people express their personalities in making an occupational choice, and individuals can be classified in terms of their similarity to six personality types (RIASEC). Each personality type is characterized by a common set of activities, preferences, interests, and values.

6. Theories of Occupational Choice Occupational Choice as a Matching Process Holland proposes that the occupational environments can also be classified into these six categories. He also classified specific occupations into the same six environments as the personality types. One of Holland’s major assumptions is that individuals will seek out work settings that allow them to showcase their skills and abilities, express their interests and values, and take on relevant assignments. Holland also proposes that people’s stability in an occupational area will depend on the fit or match between personality type and occupational environment.

7. Theories of Occupational Choice Occupational Choice as a Matching Process The matching of individuals with occupations is based on the notion of supplementary congruence, the matching of individuals with environments in which they are similar to people already in those environments. There is a possibility of complementary congruence where personality characteristics and abilities of the individual can serve to complement personal characteristics and abilities already present in the work environment. Donald Super’s work is also based on the matching concept. The key concept in his model is the person’s self-concept, “the individual’s picture of himself, the perceived self with accrued meanings”. Our self concept consists of attributes we believe we possess: our abilities, personality traits, needs, interests, and values. Super believes that an occupational choice enables a person to play a role appropriate to the self-concept. People implement their self concept in developing an occupational choice.

8. Theories of Occupational Choice Occupational Choice as a Developmental Process The choice of an occupation can be considered a developmental process that evolves over time. The decision to pursue a particular occupation is really a series of decisions that span a significant portion of one’s life. A number of educational and vocational decisions and activities culminate in an occupational choice. The self concept develops over time and it takes time for one to learn about the world of work. It is proper to view occupational choice as an unfolding, gradual, evolving process, and the need to make occupational choices can occur throughout the life cycle. People learn about themselves and the world of work through exploratory behavior. Adults continue to gain personal insights over the later stages of the life cycle. Transitions and changes in life roles can also necessitate the making of occupational choices. Organizational changes can also force a change in one’s occupational field.

9. Theories of Occupational Choice Occupational Choice as a Decision Making Task Given a set of alternative occupations, how does one choose which occupation to pursue? A number of models of vocational decision making have been developed to address this very issue. Most are based on some of psychological decision theory where it is generally assumed that individuals use compensatory or trade-off approaches in which unfavorable aspects of a given job are offset by the favorable elements of the job. Note, however, that finding an occupation attractive is not the same as choosing to enter an occupation. The individual assesses the likelihood of actually getting into the identified occupations, so that we are most likely to pursue an occupation that we not only find attractive but also have a decent chance of entering.

10. Theories of Occupational Choice Occupational Choice as a Decision Making Task There is evidence that individuals make unprogrammed decisions where they do not initially assess a job on a long list of outcomes but rather focus on one or two significant outcomes. Jobs that fail to reach an acceptable level on these significant outcomes are rejected from further consideration, even if they would provide many other desirable outcomes. Jobs that survive the cut are placed on an active roster of acceptable alternatives and the person makes an implicit decision to favor one alternative over the others, based on just one or two outcomes. Choices are based on perceptions of different occupations or jobs. If beliefs and perceptions are unrealistic, occupational decisions are likely to be faulty.

11. Theories of Occupational Choice Social and Cultural Influences on Occupational Choice The sociological approach to careers reflect the idea that circumstances beyond the individual’s control can exert considerable influence on the course of his or her life and occupational choices. The environment – both past and present – plays a major role in occupational decision making. Past environment includes family of origin, social class, income, and place of residence. The present environment includes the economic, political, and cultural climate in which a person lives. Even the role of accidents in career decision making must not be forgotten.

12. Guidelines for Effective Occupational Decision Making Development of Self-Awareness Development of Accurate Occupational Information Identify a number of occupations that may be potentially compatible and satisfying Collect more in-depth information on each occupation Effective Goal Setting Development of Career Strategies

13. Organizational Choice: The Process of Entering an Organization Once a person has settled upon a particular occupation, the next step is to find a job and successfully gain entry into an organization. Past research has identified four phases in the organizational entry process: Recruitment Selection Orientation Socialization

14. Organizational Choice: The Process of Entering an Organization Stages Recruitment is the process of mutual attraction between the individual and the organization. Selection involves the process of mutual choice. Orientation is the period of initial adjustment once the person has actually entered the organization. Socialization is the process of mutual adjustment. The ultimate objective of organizational entry is to attain a match between the individual and the organization. The candidate’s capabilities and the job’s requirements must match and the individual’s needs and the organization’s rewards or reinforcements must match. Both matches affect the contribution a new employee makes to his or her organization. Consequences of a mismatch can be severe.

15. Theories of Organizational Choice Job candidates are attracted to an organization that is most likely to provide desirable outcomes and they avoid those organizations that would likely result in undesirable outcomes. Programmed decisions Unprogrammed decisions Although research has supported the efficacy of both types of decision making, one can argue that the more thorough the search and the greater the number of outcomes and organizations considered, the greater the likelihood of a favorable match and success in the job search process.

16. Theories of Organizational Choice The Role of Expectations in Organizational Entry Candidates develop expectations about an organization’s capacity to provide valued outcomes. These expectations guide people toward or away from various job opportunities. Job expectations may not be realized when a candidate actually enters the organization as a new employee. New employees often experience “reality shock”, a sense of disillusionment, disappointment, and dissatisfaction upon discovering that the reality of the job and the organization does not quite match their preconceived expectations.

17. Theories of Organizational Choice Development of Unrealistic Expectations Candidates who hold unrealistic expectations become dissatisfied when faced with the realities of a job and, ultimately, may choose to leave the organization. Why do people develop unrealistic expectations? Career transitions A career transition is a period in which a person either changes career role or changes orientation to a current role. The Recruitment process Organizational Stereotypes Educational Process Lack of Prior Work Experience Self-Delusion

18. Theories of Organizational Choice Organizational Choice and Entry in Later Adulthood The issues surrounding organizational entry are relevant at any age. Older adults confront these demands from a different, more experienced perspective.

19. Organizational Actions Duringthe Entry Process Attraction of Job Candidates Research on recruitment has identified a number of issues that have significant implications for organizations. Impact of the Recruiter Follow-Up Activities

20. Organizational Actions Duringthe Entry Process Realistic Recruitment An organization’s image can be “too positive” if it is not based on reality. Realistic recruitment means presenting candidates with relevant and undistorted information about the job and the organization, even when this information might be seen as negative or unflattering to the hiring organization. A realistic job preview or RJP presents job candidates with a balanced, realistic picture of the job and the organization, and with a preview of the positive and negative aspects of the job. The presentation of realistic information to job candidates should reduce the level of voluntary turnover among candidates who ultimately join the organization.

21. Organizational Actions Duringthe Entry Process Do Realistic Job Previews Work? Research suggests that RJPs can reduce turnover significantly, which can provide considerable savings to organizations who have to recruit, select, and train fewer new employees to replace those who terminate. But not in every case. Little evidence to support any of the four mechanisms that explain the effectiveness of RJPs. There are situations in which RJPs are likely to be most effective.

22. Organizational Actions Duringthe Entry Process Assessment and Selection In the selection of individuals for employment, organizations first attempt to achieve a match or fit between the knowledge, skills, and abilities of the individual and the specific requirements of the job. Recruiters also assess the fit between the job candidate and such broader organizational factors as strategy, culture, and corporate values. Other organizations make hiring decisions using a single criterion.

23. Individual Actions Duringthe Entry Process Development of Self-Awareness Identification of Prospective Employers Effective Job Interview Behavior Assessing Organizations Choosing Organizations