Analyzing and Evaluating Arguments

1. Analyzing and Evaluating Arguments GXEX1406 Thinking and Communication Skills

2. What is an argument ? • Forms of discourse that attempt to persuade readers or listeners to accept a claim, whether acceptance is based on logical or emotional appeals or, is usually a case, on both. • Statement or statements offering support for a claim. GXEX1406 Thinking and Communication Skills – Week 9 Analyzing and Evaluating Arguments

3. Components of argument Claim Statement that is either true or false. Must always have a truth value, i.e. it must be true or false. Support / Premise Consists of materials used by arguer to convince the claim. Include evidence & motivational appeals. Warrant / Conclusion An inference / assumption, a belief / principle that is taken for granted. Allow to make the connection between support & claim. GXEX1406 Thinking and Communication Skills – Week 9 Analyzing and Evaluating Arguments

4. Example • Claim or not? • Student in FSKTM like PBL class. • Please shut the door behind you. • Support / Premise • 98% of the students in PBL class passed the exam. • Warrant / Conclusion • Most of the student in FSKTM like PBL class. GXEX1406 Thinking and Communication Skills – Week 9 Analyzing and Evaluating Arguments

5. The Claim Fact Assert that a condition has existed, exists or will exist based on facts or data that objectively verifiable. Value Attempt to prove that some things are more or less desirable than others. Policy Assert that specific policies should be instituted as solutions to problems. E.g.should, must, ought to, etc. GXEX1406 Thinking and Communication Skills – Week 9 Analyzing and Evaluating Arguments

6. Evaluating Argument • Should be able to : • Identify assumptions • Recognize contradictions • Distinguish between fact & opinion • Recognize bias • Distinguish between fact & inference GXEX1406 Thinking and Communication Skills – Week 9 Analyzing and Evaluating Arguments

7. Examples • Teaching is rewarding occupation & you only work until 2.00p.m. It is a suitable profession for anyone who wants their afternoon free • MyKad has been produced with the most secure technology. It has been cloned once (assumptions). (contradiction). GXEX1406 Thinking and Communication Skills – Week 9 Analyzing and Evaluating Arguments

8. Cont.. • Mount Kinabalu is a beautiful mountain • Mount Kinabalu is the highest peak in Southeast Asia • I don’t think teaching in English is good and practical because my son is not able to understand what the teacher is talking about (opinion). (fact). (bias). GXEX1406 Thinking and Communication Skills – Week 9 Analyzing and Evaluating Arguments

9. Cont.. • You noticed that your friend is loosing weight, quieter than usual & her face is sunken. When you asked ‘Are you OK?’, the replies ‘Oh, I’m fine’. It would be reasonable to conclude: • She is on diet • Suffering from some disease • On hallucinatory drugs The conclusions is reasonable but not factual reports. It is called inferences. GXEX1406 Thinking and Communication Skills – Week 9 Analyzing and Evaluating Arguments

10. Reasons for using arguments Persuading others E.g. She should marry you because you are so good looking. Making decisions E.g. Being a carpenter, because you are good at working with your hands & like building things. Explaining things E.g. You are late for an important meeting, and the boss wants to know why. GXEX1406 Thinking and Communication Skills – Week 9 Analyzing and Evaluating Arguments

11. How to detect an argument 1. Search for premise & conclusion indicator words. E.g.Since, because, for, follows from, therefore, thus, so, it follows that, accordingly, etc. 2. Determine if the purpose of the words is to persuade someone. 3. Make an effort to understand the context of the passage in question. GXEX1406 Thinking and Communication Skills – Week 9 Analyzing and Evaluating Arguments

12. Examples (1) • All Malaysians like badminton. Hafiz is a Malaysian. So, Hafiz likes badminton. • April 28 is when federal income taxes are due. So, Malaysians take April 28 seriously. • So (1)  conclusion indicator. • So (2)  X conclusion indicator. GXEX1406 Thinking and Communication Skills – Week 9 Analyzing and Evaluating Arguments

13. Common Premise indicators • As shown by • Because • Follows from • For • For the reason that • Given that • Since GXEX1406 Thinking and Communication Skills – Week 9 Analyzing and Evaluating Arguments

14. Common conclusion indicators • Accordingly • Consequently • Hence • In conclusion • It follows that • So • Then • Therefore • Thus • We can conclude that GXEX1406 Thinking and Communication Skills – Week 9 Analyzing and Evaluating Arguments

15. Examples (2) • I was late for an appointment because my car broke down & an accident slowed down the traffic. • I think Bush was the worst person in the 21st century because he was responsible for the death of millions of people & because he promoted hate & violence. • (1)  explanation • (2)  arguments GXEX1406 Thinking and Communication Skills – Week 9 Analyzing and Evaluating Arguments

16. Examples (3) • Suppose abortion is being discussed & someone says, “I disagree with you, let me tell you why.”  means that an argument will be forthcoming. • Suppose you & a friend are trying to figure out why the economy is doing so well. You ask, “Why is it doing so well?” & she responds, “How about the following reasons?”  although she is offering reasons, she is not trying to persuade you anything (not arguments). GXEX1406 Thinking and Communication Skills – Week 9 Analyzing and Evaluating Arguments

17. Other kinds of Non-Arguments • Descriptions • E.g. • Dr. Mahathir is a Prime Minister. • Winters are cold in Alaska. • My old brother is 45 years old • Ajai was a composer • Reports • E.g. • The dropping of atomic bombs on the Japanese cities of Hiroshima and Nagasaki (1945) • The formation of United Nations (1945) • The first human on the moon (1969) GXEX1406 Thinking and Communication Skills – Week 9 Analyzing and Evaluating Arguments

18. Characteristics of Arguments One important principle Principle of charity : when more than one reading of an argument is possible, interpret the argument in the way most flattering to its presenter Elements of an arguments. Premise(s) + Conclusion Standard form for an argument. 1. Premise (1) 2. Premise (2) :. Conclusion GXEX1406 Thinking and Communication Skills – Week 9 Analyzing and Evaluating Arguments

19. Characteristics of Arguments (Cont.) Inductive vs. Deductive arguments Deductive – premises guarantees the truth of the conclusion Inductive – strong argument: truth of the premises  conclusion probably true. Weak argument: truth of premises  conclusion probably not true. GXEX1406 Thinking and Communication Skills – Week 9 Analyzing and Evaluating Arguments

20. Examples • Jorge: Everyone should be a vegetarian. • That’s a claim but not argument. For it to be argument, make a claim & give some support or reasons for it. • Jorge: Everyone should be a vegetarian because my grandmother says so. •  That’s an argument. Made a claim – everyone should be a vegetarian & offered reason – grandmother says so – in support of it. GXEX1406 Thinking and Communication Skills – Week 9 Analyzing and Evaluating Arguments

21. Cont.. • Anyone who is out of food should buy some more. • Lili is out of food. ____________________________ :. Lili should buy some food GXEX1406 Thinking and Communication Skills – Week 9 Analyzing and Evaluating Arguments

22. Cont.. • Most (80%) of the people from Singapore has been infected with SARS. • Joe is from Singapore. _____________________________ :. Joe has been infected with SARS.  Inductively strong, conclusions contradictory; they cannot both be true. GXEX1406 Thinking and Communication Skills – Week 9 Analyzing and Evaluating Arguments

23. 7 Good argument patterns • Modus Ponens • If A, then B. • A. :. B. e.g. • If I study, then I will pass. • I will study. :. I will pass. GXEX1406 Thinking and Communication Skills – Week 9 Analyzing and Evaluating Arguments

24. Modus Tollens • If A, then B. • Not B. :. Not A. e.g. • If Tamika is healthy, then she’s happy. • Tamika is not happy. :. Tamika is not healthy. GXEX1406 Thinking and Communication Skills – Week 9 Analyzing and Evaluating Arguments

25. Disjunctive argument • Either A or B. • Not A :. B e.g. • Either I sleep or eat • I am not sleeping :. I am eating. GXEX1406 Thinking and Communication Skills – Week 9 Analyzing and Evaluating Arguments

26. Hypothetical Syllogism • If A, then B. • If B, then C. :. If A, then C. e.g. • If I work, then I’ll get paid. • If I get paid, then I’ll be happy. :. If I work, then I’ll be happy. GXEX1406 Thinking and Communication Skills – Week 9 Analyzing and Evaluating Arguments

27. Chain argument • A • If A, then B. • If B, then C. :. C. e.g. • Antoine is short. • If Antoine is short, then Camille won’t date him. • If Camille won’t date him, then Antoine will ask Donna out. :. Antoinne will ask Donna out. GXEX1406 Thinking and Communication Skills – Week 9 Analyzing and Evaluating Arguments

28. Predicate Instantiation • All A’s are B’s. • M is an A. :. M is a B. e.g. • All carpenters are good at building. • Mahmud is a carpenter. :. Mahmud is good at building. GXEX1406 Thinking and Communication Skills – Week 9 Analyzing and Evaluating Arguments

29. Universal Syllogism • All A’s are B’s. • All B’s are C’s. :. All A’s are C’s. e.g. • All whales are mammals. • All mammals nurse their young. :. All whales nurse their young. GXEX1406 Thinking and Communication Skills – Week 9 Analyzing and Evaluating Arguments

30. Missing parts of arguments • Implicit Premises • E.g. • If Lukes loves Laura, then he will treat her well. • He often does not treat her well._____________ • :. ? • If A, then B. • Not B._____ • :. ? • Implicit conclusions • E.g. • If Brian is late, then Gail will be angry. • Brian is late.____ • :. Gail will be angry. • If A, then B. • A.____________ • :. B. (implicit) GXEX1406 Thinking and Communication Skills – Week 9 Analyzing and Evaluating Arguments

31. Distinguishing Good Arguments from Bad Ones. • Validity • All whales are mammals • All mammals nurse their young.________ • :. All whales nurse their young. •  Conclusion follows from the premises. Premises true + conclusion true = valid. • Soundness • If and only if • It is valid • All premise are reasonable or rationally acceptable. GXEX1406 Thinking and Communication Skills – Week 9 Analyzing and Evaluating Arguments