Concentration

1. SPORT PSYCHOLOGYChapter 5 Concentration Lavallee et al. (2004) Sport Psychology: Contemporary Themes (Palgrave Macmillan, Basingstoke)

2. Introduction, History and Development • Attentional processes (e.g., ability to concentrate effectively) are crucial for success in sport • Much anecdotal evidence to support this idea e.g., Darren Clarke (1999, after round of 60) “I was in my own little world focusing on every shot … I wasn’t thinking of what score I was on”. What other evidence is there? • Need to explore what “concentration” or “focusing” ability means in psychology

3. Introduction, History and Development • “Concentration” is ability to focus mental effort on task at hand while ignoring distractions • It is regarded as one of three dimensions of construct of “attention” 1. First dimension is selective perception or skill of “zooming in” on task-relevant information (e.g., goalkeeper trying to focus on flight of corner-kick while ignoring movements of other players in box)

4. Introduction, History and Development 2. Second dimension is ability to perform two or more actions at same time (e.g., basketballer dribbling with ball while looking for teammate to pass it to) 3. Third dimension is “concentration” or ability to exert mental effort when focusing on what is most important in any situation (e.g., listening carefully to coach’s instructions before match)

5. Theories and Models • Since the 1950s, cognitive psychology has viewed the mind as limited capacity information processing system and three cognitive metaphors of attention have emerged: • First, attention as a filter which screens information prior to further processing by mind • Second, attention as spotlight or zoom lens which can be directed at targets of interest • Third, attention as resource or energy which can be divided between two or more concurrent actions

6. Theories and Models 1. Attention as Filter • Idea of attention as “filter” goes back to auditory research on “cocktail party” effect - whereby people can “shadow” some information (e.g. the sound of own name) while ignoring other sounds in a crowded room • Broadbent (1958) postulated that attention works like a crude filter in allowing only one input at a time to be processed by mind • This theory abandoned due to finding that sometimes, unattended information can be processed unconsciously by mind

7. Theories and Models 2. Attention as Spotlight • Spotlight metaphor suggests that mind pays attention by directing beam of mental energy at target stimuli • Influential theory but hampered by failure to explain who/what controls the spotlight and what lies “outside” beam of light (unconscious attention)

8. Theories and Models • 3. Attention as “Time-Sharing” Ability • Third metaphor suggests attention is a form of mental “time-sharing” ability which enables people to perform two or more skills at same time • This ability is governed by certain principles - e.g. the more a task is practised, the less attention it requires and the more spare capacity is available

9. Methods and Measures • Three main approaches (“paradigms”) used to measure attentional processes in athletes: 1. The psychometric approach (like Nideffer’s, 1976, TAIS) uses self-report scales to measures individual differences in athletes’ attentional skills • Has proved to be a popular but limited approach (e.g. few concentration tests have been validated using representative sample of athletes) • But note a recent test (“Thought Occurrence Q’aire”; Hatzigeorgiadis & Biddle, 2000) which purports to assess athletes’ concentration skills

10. Methods and Measures 2. The neuroscientific approach tries to assess psychophysiological aspects of attention • Typical measures used here include heart rate (HR), electroencephalographic (EEG) indices, event-related potentials (ERPs) and neuroimaging techniques (e.g. PET and fMRI scans) • Have many advantages (e.g. “real time” study of brain regions involved in attention) but some limitations (e.g. expensive, time-consuming and difficult to interpret)

11. Methods and Measures 3. The experimental or “dual task” paradigm whereby researchers try to measure athletes’ “spare” mental capacity by studying how well they perform pairs of concurrent tasks • Useful in facilitating study of effects of emotions (e.g. anxiety) on skilled performance but very time-consuming to organise and administer • Overall, relatively little research conducted on measurement of attentional processes in athletes

12. Methods and Measures Concentration Principles • Five concentration principles may be identified as follows (Moran, 1996, 2003): 1. Effective concentration requires deliberate mental effort: athletes must prepare to achieve a “focused” state of mind (see quote from Oliver Kahn) 2. Although skilled athletes have the ability to divide their attention between two or more concurrent actions, they can focus on only one thought at a time.

13. Methods and Measures 3. Athletes’ minds are “focused” optimally when there is no difference between what they are thinking about and what they are doing. This happens when they concentrate on actions that are specific, relevant and under their own control 4. Athletes tend to “lose” their concentration when their mental spotlight “shines” at targets that are outside their control or are irrelevant to the task at hand 5. Anxiety impairs athletes’ concentration by directing it at task-irrelevant factors

14. Practical Issues and Interventions • Over past decade, a variety of strategies have been postulated to improve concentration skills in athletes (see Moran, 2003) • These strategies include concentration “exercises” (activities to be used during training) and concentration “techniques” (activities to be used in competitive situations) • Unfortunately, most concentration exercises (e.g. concentration grid) lack empirical validity • However, one exception is “simulation training” whereby athletes practise under real-life distractions in order to get used to them

15. Practical Issues and Interventions • By contrast, there is growing evidence that the following four concentration techniques have some validity: 1. Some athletes specify “performance goals” (or behavioural targets that are under their own control e.g. tennis player aiming for at least 80% accuracy in first serve) to sharpen their focus • May work by encouraging athletes to concentrate only on task-relevant information

16. Practical Issues and Interventions • 2. “Pre-performance routines” are consistent sequences of thoughts and actions which help athletes to focus before performing self-paced skills (e.g. golf putt, penalty kick, free throw) • Routines improve concentration by reminding athletes to focus on one job at a time in the present rather than thinking too far ahead (see Jonny Wilkinson)

17. Practical Issues and Interventions 3. “Trigger words” are a form of instructional self-talk in which athletes remind themselves to perform certain actions (e.g. “stay low”) which they might otherwise forget in the heat of competition (see Serena Williams in 2002 Wimbledon final) • Trigger words seem to work by helping athletes to concentrate on task-relevant information

18. Practical Issues and Interventions 4. Mental practice or “visualization” involves ”seeing” and “feeling” oneself performing a skill in one’s imagination before actually executing it • This concentration technique is used extensively by athletes - e.g., former cricket batsman Mike Atherton used imagery to anticipate how he would react to balls bowled at him in test matches • Imagery seems to enhance athletes’ concentration by priming the neural pathways underlying key skills and by training performers to focus on actions rather than results

19. Case Study Paul is a 20-year old professional soccer goalkeeper from a Premiershipclub who has been sent on loan to a lower division team. Suffering from a recent run of poor form, he reveals that he has a tendency to “lose focus” - especially when the ball is in the opposing team’s half of the pitch.Also, he admits that his mind often drifts when he is defending against corner kicks and free kicks and his positioning suffers accordingly. He has never considered any advice on sport psychology before because he feels that “you either have it or you haven’t” but he is now willing to try anything that will help him to play better.

20. Case Study Questions • With reference to the Theories and Models section in Chapter 5, how would you interpret what is happening in this case study? • With reference to Methods and Measures, as well as Concentration Principles, what techniques would you employ to help understand the issues involved? • With reference to Practical Issues and Interventions, how would you deal with this situation?

21. Study Questions • What do the terms “concentration: and “attention” mean in sport psychology? How do we know that concentration is essential for athletic success? • Compare and contrast the “filter”, “spotlight” and “resource” models of attention. What are the main limitations of these cognitive approaches to attention? • What are the three main paradigms or approaches used by sport psychologists to measure attentional processes in athletes? Give examples of one measurement technique from each paradigm. • Why do athletes “lose” their concentration? Give examples of “external” and “internal” distractions. How can these distractions be overcome? • What practical techniques are recommended by sport psychologists for improving athletes’ concentration skills? Which of these techniques is most useful for an athlete performing an individual sport (e.g. golf)? Which of them is most useful for team sport performers (e.g. football players)? Does the nature of a sport affect the type of concentration technique that is most suitable for it?

22. Further Reading • Abernethy, B. (2001). “Attention” in R. N. Singer, H. A.Hausenblas & C.M. Janelle (eds.), Handpook of Research in Sport Psychology (2nd edn, pp. 53-85). New York: Macmillan • Abernethy, B., Summers, J. J., & Ford, S. (1998). “Issues in the Measurement of Attention” in J. L. Duda (ed.), Advances in Sport and Exercise Psychology Measurement (pp. 173-93) Morgantown, WV: Fitness Information Technology • Beilock, S. L., & Carr, T. H. (2001). “On the Fragility of Skilled Performance: What Governs Choking Under Pressure?” Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, vol. 130, pp. 701-25 • Greenlees, I., & Moran, A. P. (2003) (eds). ConcentrationSkills Training in Sport, Leicester: British Psychological Society • Moran, A. P. (2004). Sport and Exercise Psychology: A CriticalIntroduction. London:Psychology Press/Routledge • Wegner, D. M. (1994). “Ironic Processes of Mental Control”.Psychological Review,vol. 101, pp. 34-52