C H A P T E R 2

1. 1 C H A P T E R 2 Cognitive and Language Development

2. Child Development

3. An Overview of Child Development Development: The pattern of biological, cognitive, and socioemotional changes that begins at conception and continues through the life span.

4. Developmental Processes Biological processes and genetic inheritance Cognitive processes Socioemotional processes

5. Developmental Issues

6. Cognitive and Language Development

7. Communication in the Brain

8. Communication in the Brain Glia � structural support and insulation Neurons � communication Soma Dendrites Axon Myelin sheath Terminal Branches / Button Behavior depends on rapid information travel and processing. The nervous system is the body�s communication network, handling information just as the circulatory system handles blood. The basic components of the nervous system are living cells called neurons and glia. Glia are cells that provide structure and insulation for neurons. They are like neural �glue.� Neurons are cells that receive, integrate, and transmit information, permitting communication in the nervous system. A �typical� neuron consists of a soma, or cell body; dendrites, which are feeler-like structures specialized to receive information; and an axon, which is a long, thin fiber that transmits signals away from the soma to other neurons, or to muscles or glands. The basic flow of information is as follows: the dendrite receives a signal, the signal passes through the soma and down the axon to the dendrites of another neuron. For efficient neural transmission to take place, many axons are covered with an insulating material called myelin. Myelin sheaths speed up transmission of signals that move along axons. Multiple sclerosis is a myelin degeneration disease, causing loss of muscle control, etc. due to loss of transmission efficiency in the nervous system when the myelin sheaths deteriorate. At the end of an axon, the terminal buttons are small knobs that secrete chemical messengers called neurotransmitters. When the signal gets to the end of the axon, it causes these chemical messengers to be released into the synapse�the junction of two neurons. The chemicals flow across the synapse and stimulate the next cell. Behavior depends on rapid information travel and processing. The nervous system is the body�s communication network, handling information just as the circulatory system handles blood. The basic components of the nervous system are living cells called neurons and glia. Glia are cells that provide structure and insulation for neurons. They are like neural �glue.� Neurons are cells that receive, integrate, and transmit information, permitting communication in the nervous system. A �typical� neuron consists of a soma, or cell body; dendrites, which are feeler-like structures specialized to receive information; and an axon, which is a long, thin fiber that transmits signals away from the soma to other neurons, or to muscles or glands. The basic flow of information is as follows: the dendrite receives a signal, the signal passes through the soma and down the axon to the dendrites of another neuron. For efficient neural transmission to take place, many axons are covered with an insulating material called myelin. Myelin sheaths speed up transmission of signals that move along axons. Multiple sclerosis is a myelin degeneration disease, causing loss of muscle control, etc. due to loss of transmission efficiency in the nervous system when the myelin sheaths deteriorate. At the end of an axon, the terminal buttons are small knobs that secrete chemical messengers called neurotransmitters. When the signal gets to the end of the axon, it causes these chemical messengers to be released into the synapse�the junction of two neurons. The chemicals flow across the synapse and stimulate the next cell.

9. Changes that influences Learning Myelination Synaptic Changes Synaptogenesis Synaptic Pruning

10. Myelination Myelination increases the speed at which information travels through the nervous system.

11. Synaptic Density in the Human Brain

13. Brain

14. Figure 3.12 Structures and areas in the human brain. (Top left) This photo of a human brain shows many of the structures discussed in this chapter. (Top right) The brain is divided into three major areas: the hindbrain, midbrain, and forebrain. These subdivisions actually make more sense for the brains of other animals than of humans. In humans, the forebrain has become so large it makes the other two divisions look trivial. However, the hindbrain and midbrain aren�t trivial; they control such vital functions as breathing, waking, and maintaining balance. (Bottom) This cross section of the brain highlights key structures and some of their principal functions. As you read about the functions of a brain structure, such as the corpus callosum, you may find it helpful to visualize it. Photo: Wadsworth collection. Figure 3.12 Structures and areas in the human brain. (Top left) This photo of a human brain shows many of the structures discussed in this chapter. (Top right) The brain is divided into three major areas: the hindbrain, midbrain, and forebrain. These subdivisions actually make more sense for the brains of other animals than of humans. In humans, the forebrain has become so large it makes the other two divisions look trivial. However, the hindbrain and midbrain aren�t trivial; they control such vital functions as breathing, waking, and maintaining balance. (Bottom) This cross section of the brain highlights key structures and some of their principal functions. As you read about the functions of a brain structure, such as the corpus callosum, you may find it helpful to visualize it. Photo: Wadsworth collection.

16. Brain Lateralization �the specialization of functions in each hemisphere of the brain.

17. Brain and Children�s Education Role of early and later experiences Dramatic changes in synaptic connections Prefrontal cortex development into adolescence Cognitive control challenges in adolescence Brain functioning along specific pathways and integrated

18. Piaget�s Cognitive Processes Schemas Assimilation Accommodation Organization Equilibration Actions or mental representations that organize knowledge Incorporating new information into existing schemas Adjusting existing schemas to fit new information and experiences Grouping isolated behaviors and thoughts into a higher-order system A shift, a resolution of conflict to reach a balance

21. Coordination of sensory experiences with motor actions. Object permanence involves the realization that objects continue to exist over time.

22. Piaget�s Preoperational Stage Symbolic Function Substage Symbolic Thought: Ability to represent mentally an object that is not present. Limitations: Egocentrism: The inability to distinguish between one�s own perspective and someone else�s perspective. Animism: The belief that inanimate objects have �lifelike� qualities and are capable of action. Artificialism: The belief that natural events are caused by people.

24. Piaget�s Preoperational StageIntuitive Thought Substage Intuitive Thought rather than logical thinking Centration: Focuses on one characteristic to the exclusion of others. Lack of Conservation Classification Limitations: Ability to classify objects according to only one characteristic at a time.

26. Inability to Classify Classification means separating things into main classes as well as subclasses. Requires child focus on more than one aspect of situation at once Cannot think about two subclasses and the larger class at the same time

27. Piaget�s Concrete Operational Stage Conservation The idea that some characteristics of an object stay the same even though the object might change in appearance. Classification Coordinate several characteristics rather than focus on a single property of an object. Seriation Order stimuli along some quantitative dimension. Transitivity Combine relations to understand certain conclusions. If A>B, and B>C, then A>C.

29. Piaget�s Formal Operational Stage Abstract reasoning: Think in abstract, idealistic, and logical ways. Hypothetical-deductive reasoning: Ability to develop hypotheses about ways to solve problems and systematically reach a conclusion. Adolescent egocentrism: Heightened self-consciousness and a sense of personal uniqueness.

30. Piaget�s TheoryTeaching Strategies/Goals

31. Piaget�s Cognitive ConstructivismTheory into Practice A: Pre-operational. He is suffering from pre-operational egocentrism. He believes that if he cannot see his classmates, they cannot see him either. A: Pre-operational. He is suffering from pre-operational egocentrism. He believes that if he cannot see his classmates, they cannot see him either.

32. Piaget�s Cognitive ConstructivismTheory into Practice A: Conservation. She is learning that height and width of the container both contribute to how full the container becomes with the same amount of sand. A: Conservation. She is learning that height and width of the container both contribute to how full the container becomes with the same amount of sand.

33. Piaget�s Cognitive ConstructivismTheory into Practice A1: Formal operational. They can understand the symbolism in literature due to their ability to think abstractly. A2: Concrete operational. They are able to remember what Mr. Welby tells them, but cannot think abstractly enough to understand the symbolism.A1: Formal operational. They can understand the symbolism in literature due to their ability to think abstractly. A2: Concrete operational. They are able to remember what Mr. Welby tells them, but cannot think abstractly enough to understand the symbolism.

34. Piaget�s Cognitive ConstructivismTheory into Practice A: Marsha is suffering from adolescent egocentrism. She is very self-conscious and believes that others will be just as interested in, and hence as critical of, her hair as she is. A: Marsha is suffering from adolescent egocentrism. She is very self-conscious and believes that others will be just as interested in, and hence as critical of, her hair as she is.

35. Criticisms of Piaget�s Theory Estimates of children�s competence Stages Training children to reason at a higher level Culture and education

36. Zone of Proximal Development Scaffolding: Teacher adjusts the level of support as performance rises. Language and Thought: Develop independently of each other, then merge. Have external or social origins Self-talk Vygotsky�s Theory

38. Vygotsky�s Social Constructivism Theory into Practice A1: The assignment is within Peter�s ZPD. He can do it with Ms. Jacob�s assistance. A2: The assignment is beyond Suzanne�s ZPD. Even with assistance she cannot complete the assignment.A1: The assignment is within Peter�s ZPD. He can do it with Ms. Jacob�s assistance. A2: The assignment is beyond Suzanne�s ZPD. Even with assistance she cannot complete the assignment.

39. Vygotsky�s Social Constructivism Theory into Practice A3: The assignment is below Clarice�s ZPD. She can easily complete the assignment with no assistance because she has already mastered the concepts. Q4: Vygotsky�s term for this assistance is scaffolding. A3: The assignment is below Clarice�s ZPD. She can easily complete the assignment with no assistance because she has already mastered the concepts. Q4: Vygotsky�s term for this assistance is scaffolding.

40. Cognitive and Language Development

41. Language is �

42. Biological and Environmental Influences Biological LAD � Language Acquisition Device � Chomsky Sensitive Period - Lenneberg Environmental Reinforcement Parental Strategies: Recasting, Expanding, Labeling Interactionists Emphasize the contribution of both.

43. How Language DevelopsInfancy Cooing and Babbling Receptive ? Expressive Language One ? two words Holophrases ? Telegraphic Speech By end of stage, may know a couple hundred words.

44. How Language DevelopsEarly Childhood

45. How Language DevelopsMiddle & Late Childhood

46. How Language DevelopsAdolescence Increased sophistication in use of words Greater understanding of metaphors, satire, and complex literary works Better writers Dialect includes jargon and slang