Cognition, Brain and Consciousness: An Introduction to Cognitive Neuroscience

1. Cognition, Brain and Consciousness: An Introduction to Cognitive Neuroscience Edited by Bernard J. Baars and Nicole M. Gage 2007 Academic Press Chapter 14 Social Cognition: Perceiving the Mental State of Others “Man is a social animal.” Attributed to Aristotle If this looks like a scene we could imagine with humans, it is because our social brains have large areas of overlap and similarity with the brains of other primates

2. Cognition, Brain and Consciousness: An Introduction to Cognitive Neuroscience Edited by Bernard J. Baars and Nicole M. Gage 2007 Academic Press Chapter Outline 1.0 Introduction 2.0 An organizing framework for social cognition 3.0 Mirror neurons and intention detection 4.0 Summary

3. Cognition, Brain and Consciousness: An Introduction to Cognitive Neuroscience Edited by Bernard J. Baars and Nicole M. Gage 2007 Academic Press 1.0 Introduction Social cognition -- a uniquely human trait is the ability to understand each other as conscious beings with internal mental states Terms that are used to refer to social cognition: Empathy carries the sense of feeling the feelings of others Theory of Mind is often used to highlight the idea that we normally have complex metacognitive understandings of our own minds as well as the minds of others

4. Cognition, Brain and Consciousness: An Introduction to Cognitive Neuroscience Edited by Bernard J. Baars and Nicole M. Gage 2007 Academic Press 1.0 Introduction Terms that are used to refer to social cognition: Mentalizing refers to that, when we have a well-developed Theory of Mind, we understand ourselves and others not just as sensory objects but also as subjective beings with mental states Mind-reading, like mentalizing, identifies our ability to attune our own behaviors to the minds and anticipated actions of others

5. Cognition, Brain and Consciousness: An Introduction to Cognitive Neuroscience Edited by Bernard J. Baars and Nicole M. Gage 2007 Academic Press 1.0 Introduction Terms that are used to refer to social cognition: Intentionality refers to how our minds and mental states are always ‘about something else’ in a way that physical objects are not. Our thoughts always have an object. Minds have mental states that represent objects and events outside themselves. It not clear that other species comprehend the intentional nature of minds in their conspecifics Intersubjectivity emphasizes our ability to coordinate mutual interactions in light of our perception of the subjectivity and intentionality of others.

6. Cognition, Brain and Consciousness: An Introduction to Cognitive Neuroscience Edited by Bernard J. Baars and Nicole M. Gage 2007 Academic Press 1.0 Introduction The importance of perspective: the 1st, 2nd, and 3rd person Science usually works from a 3rd person perspective: this means that researchers adopt an objective point of view, seeing all evidence as a physical object. Recently, scientists studying human consciousness have argued for using a 1st person perspective as another means of gathering evidence: collecting data using introspection or self-report. In the 2nd person perspective, the other person is viewed as a subject rather than an object, as someone who has mental states. This perspective is less well established in psychological science though it is well-known in clinical psychology.

7. Cognition, Brain and Consciousness: An Introduction to Cognitive Neuroscience Edited by Bernard J. Baars and Nicole M. Gage 2007 Academic Press 1.0 Introduction Theory of Mind (TOM) -- the full-fledged ability to understand and predict our own and others’ minds. TOM has been explained by three kinds of theories: Module theories suppose thathuman beings develop a theory of mind module (TOMM) that is separate from -- but builds on -- other mental abilities that may be shared by non-human primates and other mammals, although only humans are presumed to have a complete TOMM. Theory theories suppose that TOM capabilities develop as a primitive, implicit theory over the course of development, much like Piaget’s conservation theories. Simulation theories suppose that we understand other minds by internally simulating the mental states of others in each situation.

8. Cognition, Brain and Consciousness: An Introduction to Cognitive Neuroscience Edited by Bernard J. Baars and Nicole M. Gage 2007 Academic Press 1.0 Introduction TOM has been explained by three kinds of theories: module theories, theory theories, and simulation theories. It is likely that all three kinds of theory are needed to account for human ‘mentalizing’ abilities.

9. Cognition, Brain and Consciousness: An Introduction to Cognitive Neuroscience Edited by Bernard J. Baars and Nicole M. Gage 2007 Academic Press 2.0 An organizing framework for social cognition • Baron-Cohen (1995) hypothesized that a fully developed theory of mind is comprised of 4 kinds of skills that develop independently: • Detection of intentions of others (ID) • Detection of eye-direction (EDD) • Shared attention (SAM) • Theory of mind module (TOMM)

10. Cognition, Brain and Consciousness: An Introduction to Cognitive Neuroscience Edited by Bernard J. Baars and Nicole M. Gage 2007 Academic Press 2.0 An organizing framework for social cognition A schematic diagram of Baron-Cohen’s Theory of Mind Model with the eye-direction detector (EDD) sending inputs to the intentionality detector (ID) and to the shared attention mechanism (SAM). The SAM also receives from the ID and interacts with the Theory of Mind Module (TOMM).

11. Cognition, Brain and Consciousness: An Introduction to Cognitive Neuroscience Edited by Bernard J. Baars and Nicole M. Gage 2007 Academic Press 2.0 An organizing framework for social cognition The first component of the TOM is the intentionality detector (ID). This is the ability to perceive intention or purposeful action in many forms of biological and non-biological movement. For example, when we watch leaves swirling in a parking lot, we have a tendancy to see the leaves as ‘wanting to go together’. We ascribe a common purpose to the leaves.

12. Cognition, Brain and Consciousness: An Introduction to Cognitive Neuroscience Edited by Bernard J. Baars and Nicole M. Gage 2007 Academic Press 2.0 An organizing framework for social cognition The second component of the TOM is the eye-direction detector (EDD). This is the skill to detect eyes and eye-like stimuli and to determine the direction of gaze. Humans, from the first hours of life, search for and focus on the eyes of their caregivers. The ‘language of the eyes’ seems to be fundamental means of communicating mental states among humans.

13. Cognition, Brain and Consciousness: An Introduction to Cognitive Neuroscience Edited by Bernard J. Baars and Nicole M. Gage 2007 Academic Press 2.0 An organizing framework for social cognition The third component is the shared attention mechanism (SAM). This is the ability we have, by the end of our first year of life, to understand that when someone else shifts the direction of their gaze they are ‘looking at’ something. We realize we can look too and see the same thing. Gaze shifting and social pointing of fingers are ways we learn to direct the attention of a companion.

14. Cognition, Brain and Consciousness: An Introduction to Cognitive Neuroscience Edited by Bernard J. Baars and Nicole M. Gage 2007 Academic Press 2.0 An organizing framework for social cognition The final component is the Theory of Mind Module (TOMM). This is a complex knowledge base containing rules of social cognition that develops by the time we reach our 4th birthday.

15. Cognition, Brain and Consciousness: An Introduction to Cognitive Neuroscience Edited by Bernard J. Baars and Nicole M. Gage 2007 Academic Press 2.0 An organizing framework for social cognition • Theory of Mind Module (TOMM) • Some of the things that the TOMM tells us by the age of 4 years: • Appearance and reality are not necessarily the same: a rock can look like an egg but not be an egg; I can pretend to be a dog and not be a dog • Other people have mental states as well as physical states • I can fool or deceive others, I understand the the point of games like hike-and-seek

16. Cognition, Brain and Consciousness: An Introduction to Cognitive Neuroscience Edited by Bernard J. Baars and Nicole M. Gage 2007 Academic Press 3.0 Mirror Neurons and Intention Detection From action to intention The mirror neuron system (MNS) is a collection of cortical neurons that allow humans to understand the intentions of others from observation of their actions Mirror neurons were first discovered in the frontal cortex of macaque monkey and shortly thereafter in their parietal cortex by Rizzolatti and colleagues. A monkey with a microelectrode attached to his head performing inside an fMRI apparatus: (a) microelectrode, (b) fMRI coil, and (c) cradle.

17. Cognition, Brain and Consciousness: An Introduction to Cognitive Neuroscience Edited by Bernard J. Baars and Nicole M. Gage 2007 Academic Press 3.0 Mirror Neurons and Intention Detection From action to intention Observed acts of another monkey can evoke mirror neuron responses: the mirror neuron responds to observed actions of (a) another monkey, (b) the experimenter, and (c ) the recorded monkey itself.

18. Cognition, Brain and Consciousness: An Introduction to Cognitive Neuroscience Edited by Bernard J. Baars and Nicole M. Gage 2007 Academic Press 3.0 Mirror Neurons and Intention Detection From action to intention Individual mirror neurons have not been studied in human to date, however there are marked similarities between mirror neuron systems studied in monkey using single unit recordings (top panel) and in human using neuroimaging of population-level neuronal responses (bottom panel).

19. Cognition, Brain and Consciousness: An Introduction to Cognitive Neuroscience Edited by Bernard J. Baars and Nicole M. Gage 2007 Academic Press 3.0 Mirror Neurons and Intention Detection From action to intention A long-standing challenge in the study of mirror neurons has been distinguishing between simple action recognition (is that grasping, reaching, or holding?) and intention detection (where an agent has a goal which is accomplished by the action: drinking tea versus cleaning up after tea). A central question: does the mirror neuron system respond to the act regardless of context? This implies that mirror neurons do action recognition. Or does it respond to acts in particular contexts? This implies that mirror neurons do intention detection.

20. Cognition, Brain and Consciousness: An Introduction to Cognitive Neuroscience Edited by Bernard J. Baars and Nicole M. Gage 2007 Academic Press 3.0 Mirror Neurons and Intention Detection To investigate this question: an fMRI study of participants observing acts with and without context

21. Cognition, Brain and Consciousness: An Introduction to Cognitive Neuroscience Edited by Bernard J. Baars and Nicole M. Gage 2007 Academic Press 3.0 Mirror Neurons and Intention Detection Results: Actions embedded in contexts (Intention condition) yielded a significant increase in activation in the posterior part of the inferior frontal gyrus and the adjacent sector of ventral premotor cortex

22. Cognition, Brain and Consciousness: An Introduction to Cognitive Neuroscience Edited by Bernard J. Baars and Nicole M. Gage 2007 Academic Press 3.0 Mirror Neurons and Intention Detection Finding posterior mirror neurons Mirror neurons are not constrained to the frontal lobe: like frontal mirror neurons, mirror neurons in inferior parietal cortex respond to particular acts in particular contexts. Converging evidence indicates that there are core social imitation systems, with frontal mirror neuron systems interacting with parietal mirror neuron systems, which in turn interact with both frontal and superior temporal regions.

23. Cognition, Brain and Consciousness: An Introduction to Cognitive Neuroscience Edited by Bernard J. Baars and Nicole M. Gage 2007 Academic Press 3.0 Mirror Neurons and Intention Detection Eye detection and gaze perception A clear understanding of the role of the eyes in social cognition requires that we understand the various kinds of eye and gaze processing. Several types of eye and gaze processes are shown at right.

24. Cognition, Brain and Consciousness: An Introduction to Cognitive Neuroscience Edited by Bernard J. Baars and Nicole M. Gage 2007 Academic Press 3.0 Mirror Neurons and Intention Detection Eye detection and gaze perception Where do these processes take place in the brain? The Superior temporal sulcus (STS) registers eyes and eye-like stimuli. The more complex levels of gaze processing involve connections between STS and areas in the parietal lobe, particularly the intraparietal sulcus.

25. Cognition, Brain and Consciousness: An Introduction to Cognitive Neuroscience Edited by Bernard J. Baars and Nicole M. Gage 2007 Academic Press 3.0 Mirror Neurons and Intention Detection Shared attention Shared attention seems to be a social skill that is unique to great apes and humans. Shared attention is more than simply looking at the same thing that another person is looking at: it involves the additional qualification that the two observers not only observe the same object but also know that the other is looking at that object. It is a triadic (three-way) activity. Pointing is a sign of triadic interaction.

26. Cognition, Brain and Consciousness: An Introduction to Cognitive Neuroscience Edited by Bernard J. Baars and Nicole M. Gage 2007 Academic Press 3.0 Mirror Neurons and Intention Detection Shared attention Brain networks for shared attention include frontal areas such as ventromedial prefrontal cortex, the left superior frontal gyrus, the cingulate gyrus, and the caudate nucleus.

27. Cognition, Brain and Consciousness: An Introduction to Cognitive Neuroscience Edited by Bernard J. Baars and Nicole M. Gage 2007 Academic Press 3.0 Mirror Neurons and Intention Detection Higher-order theory of mind abilities Attributing mental states to other Where in the brain does attribution of mental states, or mentalizing, occur? The prefrontal cortex (PFC) plays an important role in mentalizing: the medial wall of the PFC can be divided into 3 segments from top to bottom Dorsolateral PFC Medial PFC Ventromedial PFC Other brain areas involved in mentalizing are the cingulate and the paracingulate gyri, known collectively as anterior cingulate cortex (ACC)

28. Cognition, Brain and Consciousness: An Introduction to Cognitive Neuroscience Edited by Bernard J. Baars and Nicole M. Gage 2007 Academic Press 3.0 Mirror Neurons and Intention Detection Perspective taking and intentional stance Perspective taking is a fundamental social skill that allows us to understand how another person thinks and feels. Reading another’s intentional stance is another key social skill. For example, when playing a game with others, some gamers will try to ‘psych out’ their opponent. They are utilizing their mentalizing abilities to ‘read the mind’ of their opponent. Brain areas thought to subserve these processes are in the medial prefrontal cortex (MPFC).

29. Cognition, Brain and Consciousness: An Introduction to Cognitive Neuroscience Edited by Bernard J. Baars and Nicole M. Gage 2007 Academic Press 3.0 Mirror Neurons and Intention Detection Face perception Perception of the unchanging aspects of the human face occurs in the fusiform face area (FFA) in the inferior temporal lobe. At right is a view of the brain from the bottom looking up. The fusiform gyrus is shown in yellow in the left and right hemispheres.

30. Cognition, Brain and Consciousness: An Introduction to Cognitive Neuroscience Edited by Bernard J. Baars and Nicole M. Gage 2007 Academic Press 3.0 Mirror Neurons and Intention Detection Face perception Brain activation for faces in the fusiform face area (FFA, shown in red) versus objects, which activate the parahippocampal gyri (PHG, shown in blue) in the inferior temporal lobe

31. Cognition, Brain and Consciousness: An Introduction to Cognitive Neuroscience Edited by Bernard J. Baars and Nicole M. Gage 2007 Academic Press 3.0 Mirror Neurons and Intention Detection Disordered social cognition in autism Deficits in social cognition are defining features of autism. Are social deficits observed in children with autism related to mirror neuron system dysfunction? A study by Dapretto and colleagues (2006) showed that brain activation in mirror neuron systems in typically developing children (a) was much higher than activation in children with autism (b). More research must be accomplished before we can be sure that the mirror neuron system is impaired in individuals with autism.

32. Cognition, Brain and Consciousness: An Introduction to Cognitive Neuroscience Edited by Bernard J. Baars and Nicole M. Gage 2007 Academic Press 4.0 Summary Social cognition abilities in human beings are complex and multifaceted. They are supported by multiple systems of interconnected cortical and subcortical areas. During evolution, the simpler valuation and behavioral system of the limbic brain was overlaid by the growing cerebral cortices that make complex cognition possible.