The Dark Legend of the 18 th C:

1. The Dark Legend of the 18th C: Origins and Sources

2. Origins: • Mughal sources from the perspective of the imperial court in New Delhi • English Histories authored by Employees of the East India Company such as Alexander Dow, William Bolts, Franklin during late 18th C • Modern Historians like Sir Jadunath Sirkar writing at the beginning of the 20th Century • Marxist historiography from Aligarh Muslim University in India during the 1950s-1960s

3. Characteristics of these theories: • All are based on the political collapse of the Mughal Empire (1526-1720s) • However, the authors in different time periods had different motivations for emphasizing decline • To understand their outlook, we will read their histories as primary texts—our job is to historicize the historians

4. S. Asia, 1708 Mughal territories In Green

7. Questions these works leave unanswered • What impact did the political collapse of the empire have on the vast majority of S. Asians who were not nobles? • What was life like in the new successor states? • How were peasant groups such as the Marathas, Sikhs, Jats able to create kingdoms in such a short time?

8. Dow’s perspective c.1770s(review) • The English East India Company had conquered Bengal in 1757and was considering expansion into the hinterland of India. • News of the Company’s shady dealings in Bengal, corporate malfeasance, and corruption reach Britain • Shareholders, the public, and some members of parliament want an investigation of the affairs in Bengal • Huge public interest in Indian affairs leads to a demand for new works on Indian history and politics.

9. State of Colonial society in 18th C. • Early 18th C. very few colonial officers, most there for only a short time to make forutnes • many others adapt to local custom and stay longer • Have Indian wives, partners, business connections • Their “going Native” is seen in an ambivalent way by other Europeans

10. Late 18th C changes in colonial society • Growing disapproval of cultural adaptation after Bengal conquest • Attempts made to retain a British identity in India—in marriages w/ european women, raising of children, social segregation by race

11. Discuss Dow’s text and motivation

12. Why do Orientalist histories persist into the modern period? • The British colonial government in India created the educational networks in which India’s new historians were trained, Dow’s history continues to be influential • Most, like Sir Jadunath Sarkar were from very wealthy elite families—their perspective is shaped by educations that emphasize European concepts of “modern” history • From the late 19th c. growing polarization of Hindus and Muslims leads to a re-conceptualization of the late Mughal period as one in which religious tensions cause imperial decline

13. Why did religious polarizaiton occur? • Colonial government creates different legal codes for each religious community—for census and other official processes everyone has to register their religious/caste affiliation • Sense of competition b/w communities for government jobs, limited employment opportunities for the educated elite • New reform movements begin within Hinduism and Islam—both stress literacy, a return to the textual practices of the “original texts” • The shared culture fostered between communities during the Mughal period collapses

14. Influence of this on Sarkar • Sir Jadunath Sarkar (1870-1958) was born in a progressive Hindu Brahmin family in Bengal. • Educated in the English colonial school system, however, he became more conservative than his family. • Greatly influenced by “Whig” view of history—i.e. the idea that human civilization is constantly progressing, and that modern European countries were the acme of this model. • Believed that colonialism would save India from the dark chaos that was created by Mughal collapse.

15. Sarkar’s work • Fascinated by the most famous Mughal Emperors-Akbar and Aurangzeb • Later in life, influenced by right-leaning Hindu groups such as the Hindu Mahasabha and works on the history of Shivaji, the first important Maratha ruler • Attributes Mughal decline to a civlizational collapse

16. Mughal Rulers • Babur (r. 1526-30) est. Mughal empire • Humayun( 1530-1540, exiled, comes back in 1555) • Akbar “The Great” 1556-1605* • Jahangir, 1605-1627 • Shah Jahan, 1628-1658 • Aurangzeb, 1658-1707*

17. Akbar and Aurangzeb

19. Sarkar’s approach: • Sees Akbar as the creator of Mughal tradition—energetic, broadminded, secular, multi-talented • Sees Aurangzeb as the last great Mughal—his intolerance and discrimination against non-Muslims, for Sarkar, creates the conditions for a collapse • Why?

20. Sarkar’s sources • Looks primarily at Persian court records and European sources from the 18th c. • Aurangzeb did create policies that were discriminatory—increased taxes for non-Muslims (jizya), created a policy of constant expansion into the south • Many of his political foes (primarily former peasant groups) were Hindu

21. Problems: • Mughal administration, even under Aurangzeb, was hybrid. Official were ethnically and religiously diverse—More Hindus worked for Aurangzeb than for any other Emperor, many in very important posts. • Aurangzeb’s largest military campaigns in the south (the Deccan) were against Muslim rulers • Not all Muslims shared Aurangzeb’s views—many in the nobility openly criticized his policies

22. For next class: • Download Sarkar and Srivastava readings • Download question sheet for “week1-tues” • Take lots of notes as you read