Developmental Analysis of a Temperamental Trait The Role of Positive Affect in Cognition

1. Developmental Analysis of a Temperamental TraitThe Role of Positive Affect in Cognition

2. Overview • Defining temperament • Development of temperament • Common measurement instruments • Discussion of positive affect and cognition

3. Temperament: Defining Characteristics • An individual differences construct • Style - Not simply content, frequency or amount Dimensional individual differences in: • Thresholds to activation • Speed of activation and recovery • Levels of activation • Expressed in affect, behavior, & cognition

4. Temperament: Defining Characteristics (cont’d) • Underlying physiological mechanisms Autonomic systems and correlates Hormonal, neurotransmitter, and metabolic • Evident across species • Heritable – 33 - 46% for a range of traits • Present early in development

5. Temperament as a Developmental Outcome • Biologically based individual differences • Biologically based maturation • Socialization • Learning

6. Temperament as a Developmental Outcome (cont’d) Theoretical differences: • Rothbart: increase in attentional orientation, smiling and laughter along with decreased distress from over stimulation • Goldsmith: development of temperament as the development of primary emotions; emotional expressions are associated with feeling states; emotional expressions are socialized

7. Temperament as a Developmental Outcome (cont’d) Theoretical differences: • Thomas & Chess: innate features of the brain; prenatal influences; interaction with the environment • Buss & Plomin: differentiation of traits over time (e.g., activity level)

8. Measurement of Temperament • Infancy • Infant Behavior Questionnaire (IBQ) (Rothbart) • used for ages 3-12 months • Scales: activity level; distress to limitations; approach; fear; duration of orienting; smiling and laughter; vocal reactivity; sadness; perceptual senstivity; low and high pleasure; soothability; recovery from distress • Also: ICQ; TTS; BSQ • Observation • Behavior in the context of the Strange Situation • Multiple dimensions of codes

9. Measurement of Temperament (cont’d) • Preschool • Toddler Behavior Assessment Questionnaire (Goldsmith) • Used for ages 16-36 months • Scales: activity level; anger; fear; pleasure; interest. • Lab-TAB (Goldsmith) • Behavioral Inhibition Paradigms (Kagan) • School Age • Child Behavior Questionnaire (Rothbart) • Used for ages 3-7 years • Scales: activity level; anger; approach, attentional focusing; discomfort; soothability; fear; high and low intensity pleasure; perceptual sensitivity; sadness; shyness; smiling and laughter.

10. Measurement of Temperament (cont’d) • Adulthood • Adult Temperament Questionnaire (Rothbart) • Broad band factors (subfactors): Negative affect (fear; sadness; discomfort; frustration); extraversion (sociability; positive affect; high intensity pleasure); effortful control (attentional control; inhibitory control; activation control); orienting sensitivity (neutral perceptual sensitivity; affective perceptual sensitivity; associative sensitivity)

11. Positive Affect as a Temperamental Trait • Behavioral indicators: smiling, giggling, laughter • Individuals differ in their expression of PA • Rank - order levels of PA are stable after age 3 • Mean levels of “observed” PA are thought to decrease over the course of development • Many theories attempt to identify a psychophysiological substrate for PA (e.g., Davidson; Depue)

12. Positive Affect in Adulthood • Positive Affect is identified within adult personality frameworks as part of Extraversion • Other facets of extraversion include reward seeking, interest, sociability, affiliation, ambition, boldness, etc.

13. Negative Emotional Experience and Cognition • Associative Network Theory e.g., hypothesis: sadness/depression increases accessibility to negative valenced memory • Social Information Processing e.g., anger and intent • Cognitive Flexibility e.g., depression and the WCST • Problem Solving e.g., negative affect and restricted problem solving

14. Positive Emotional Experience and Cognition • Associative Network Theory e.g., hypothesis: PA increases accessibility to positively valenced memories • Social Information Processing e.g., hypothesis: PA increases the number of possible actions in an interaction • Cognitive Flexibility e.g., PA and multiple classifications • Problem Solving e.g., PA and production of viable solutions

15. Mechanisms for the Associations • Behavioral • Biological • Behavior x biology interactions

16. Behavioral Mechanisms Temperamental PA is a predisposition for the development of cognitive flexibility: • Learning Processes Temperament influences the experience of reinforcers in these tasks • Environmental Elicitation Temperament influences response from others

17. Behavioral Mechanisms (cont’d) • Environmental Construal Temperament influences the interpretation of the environment and their experiences • Environmental Selection Temperament shapes choices concerning day to day environments • Environmental Manipulation Temperament influences how they modify their environment

18. Behavioral Mechanisms (cont’d) Temperamental PA may act through associated behaviors to aid in the development of cognitive flexibility • Sociability • Engagement

19. Biological Mechanisms PA is involved in neuronal circuits that aid in flexibility • Reward pathways Projections to the prefrontal cortex • Cognitive-Affective pathways ACC has projections to the prefrontal cortex

20. Problems With the Current Research • Developmental concerns have not been addressed Mainly cross-sectional studies Mainly adolescent participants • Mechanisms are still hypothetical Environment has not been measured

21. Problems With the Current Research (cont’d) • Issue of temperamental PA vs. induced PA • Cognitive processes are the endpoint of other aspects of development

22. Temperament and Adult Outcomes • Temperament and the foundation of later personality • Temperament and psychopathology (in Lea’s talk)

23. References Ashby, F. G., Isen, A. M., & Turken, A. U. (1999). A neuropsychological theory of positive affect and its influence on cognition. Psychological Review, 106(3), 529-550. Cole, P. M., Martin, S. E., & Dennis, T. A. (2004). Emotion Regulation as a Scientific Construct: Methodological Challenges and Directions for Child Development Research. Child Development, 75(2), 317-333. Depue, R.A., & Collins, P.F. (1999). Neurobiology of the structure of personality: Dopamine facilitation of incentive motivation and extraversion. Behavioral and Brain Sciences,22, 491-569. Goldsmith, H. H., Buss, A. H., Plomin, R., & Rothbart, M. K. (1987). What is temperament? Four approaches. Child Development, 58(2), 505-529. Goldsmith, H. H., & Hewitt, E. C. (2003). Validity of parental report of temperament: Distinctions and needed research. Infant Behavior & Development, 26(1), 108-111. Hamburg, S. (1998). Inherited hypohedonia leads to learned helplessness: A Conjecture updated. Review of General Psychology, 2, 384-403. Meehl, P. E. (1975). Hedonic capacity: Some conjectures. Bulletin of the Menninger Clinic, 1975, 39, 295-307. Rothbart, M. K. & Bates, J. E. (1998). Temperament. In W. Damon (Series Ed.) & N. Eisenberg (Vol. Ed.), Handbook of child psychology: Vol. 3. Social, emotional and personality development. (5th ed.) (pp. 105-176). New York: Wiley.

24. Reviewers Susan Brockmeyer Brian McFarland