The Birth of Biology

1. 第二章“史前”生物学 授课教师：牛登科 http://cmb.bnu.edu.cn/teachers/niudk.htm dkniu@bnu.edu.cn 010-58802064

2. “生物学”的诞生 The term biology is derived from the Greek word βίος, bios, "life" and the suffix -λογία, -logia, "study of." The Latin form of the term first appeared in 1736 when Linnaeus (Carl von Linné) used biologi in his Bibliotheca botanica. In 1802, the term biology in its modern sense was propounded independently by Gottfried Reinhold Treviranus (Biologie oder Philosophie der lebenden Natur) and Lamarck (Hydrogéologie). The word was coined in 1800 by Karl Friedrich Burdach.

3. Timeline of Pre-biologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_biology_and_organic_chemistry c. 520 BC — Alcmaeon of Croton distinguished veins from arteries and discovered the optic nerve. c. 450 BC — Sushruta wrote the Sushruta Samhita, describing over 120 surgical instruments and 300 surgical procedures, classifying human surgery into eight categories, and introducing cosmetic and plastic surgery. c. 450 BC — Xenophanes examined fossils and speculated on the evolution of life. c. 350 BC — Aristotle attempted a comprehensive classification of animals. His written works include Historion Animalium, a general biology of animals, De Partibus Animalium, a comparative anatomy and physiology of animals, and De Generatione Animalium, on developmental biology. c. 300 BC — Theophrastos (or Theophrastus) began the systematic study of botany. c. 300 BC — Herophilos dissected the human body. c. 100 BC — Diocles wrote the oldest known anatomy book and was the first to use the term anatomy.

4. Timeline of Pre-biologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_biology_and_organic_chemistry c. 800 — Al-Jahiz describes the struggle for existence, introduces the idea of a food chain, and adheres to environmental determinism. c. 1010 — Avicenna (Abu Ali al Hussein ibn Abdallah ibn Sina) published The Canon of Medicine (Kitab al-Qanun fi al-tibb), in which he introduces clinical trials and clinical pharmacology, and which remains an authoritative text in European medical education up until the 17th century. c. 1150 — Avenzoar introduces experimental surgery, where animal testing is used to experiment with surgical techniques prior to using them on humans. c. 1200 — The Andalusian-Arabian biologist Abu al-Abbas al-Nabati develops an early scientific method for botany, introducing empirical and experimental techniques in the testing, description and identification of numerous materia medica, and separating unverified reports from those supported by actual tests and observations. 1242 — Ibn al-Nafis publishes his Commentary on Anatomy in Avicenna's Canon, in which he discovers the pulmonary circulation and coronary circulation, which form the basis of the circulatory system.

5. Timeline of Pre-biologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_biology_and_organic_chemistry 16?? — Jan Baptist van Helmont performed his famous tree plant experiment in which he shows that the substance of a plant derives from water, a forerunner of the discovery of photosynthesis. 1628 — William Harvey published An Anatomical Exercise on the Motion of the Heart and Blood in Animals 1651 — William Harvey concluded that all animals, including mammals, develop from eggs, and spontaneous generation of any animal from mud or excrement was an impossibility. 1658 — Jan Swammerdam observed red blood cells under a microscope. 1663 — Robert Hooke saw cells in cork using a microscope. 1668 — Francesco Redi disproved spontaneous generation by showing that fly maggots only appear on pieces of meat in jars if the jars are open to the air. Jars covered with cheesecloth contained no flies. 1672 — Marcello Malpighi published the first description of chick development, including the formation of muscle somites, circulation, and nervous system.

6. Timeline of Pre-biologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_biology_and_organic_chemistry 1676 — Anton van Leeuwenhoek observed protozoa and calls them animalcules. 1677 — Anton van Leeuwenhoek observed spermatozoa. 1683 — Anton van Leeuwenhoek observed bacteria. Leeuwenhoek's discoveries renew the question of spontaneous generation in microorganisms. 1768 — Lazzaro Spallanzani again disproved spontaneous generation by showing that no organisms grow in a rich broth if it is first heated (to kill any organisms) and allowed to cool in a stoppered flask. He also showed that fertilization in mammals requires an egg and semen. 1771 — Joseph Priestley demonstrated that plants produce a gas that animals and flames consume. 1798 — Thomas Malthus discussed human population growth and food production in An Essay on the Principle of Population. 1802 — The term biology in its modern sense was propounded independently by Gottfried Reinhold Treviranus (Biologie oder Philosophie der lebenden Natur) and Lamarck (Hydrogéologie). The word was coined in 1800 by Karl Friedrich Burdach.

7. Biologists of Pre-biology1707 – 1778, Carl Linnaeus (Carl von Linné)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carl_Linnaeus Laid the foundations for the modern scheme of binomial nomenclature. He is known as the father of modern taxonomy, and is also considered one of the fathers of modern ecology. Even in his early years, Linnaeus seemed to have a liking for plants, flowers in particular. Whenever he was upset, he was given a flower, which immediately calmed him. Nils spent much time in his garden and often showed flowers to Linnaeus and told him their names. Soon Linnaeus was given his own patch of earth where he could grow plants. Linnaeus' father began teaching him Latin, religion, and geography at an early age; one account says that due to family use of Latin for conversation, the boy learned Latin before he learned Swedish. When Linnaeus was seven, Nils decided to hire a tutor for him.

8. Linnaeus entered the Växjö Gymnasium in 1724, where he studied mainly Greek, Hebrew, theology and mathematics, a curriculum designed for boys preparing for the priesthood. In the last year at the gymnasium, Linnaeus' father visited to ask the professors how his son's studies were progressing; to his dismay, most said that the boy would never become a scholar. Rothman believed otherwise, suggesting Linnaeus could have a future in medicine. The doctor offered to have Linnaeus live with his family in Växjö and to teach him physiology and botany. Nils accepted this offer. Lund University and later Uppsala University. During a visit with his parents, Linnaeus told them about his plan to travel to Lapland; Rudbeck had made the journey in 1695, but the detailed results of his exploration were lost in a fire seven years afterwards. Linnaeus' hope was to find new plants, animals and possibly valuable minerals. In April 1732, Linnaeus was awarded a grant from the Royal Society of Sciences in Uppsala for his journey. Biologists of Pre-biology1707 – 1778, Carl Linnaeus (Carl von Linné)

9. Linnaeus began his expedition from Uppsala in May; he travelled on foot and horse, bringing with him his journal, botanical and ornithological manuscripts and sheets of paper for pressing plants. He sometimes dismounted on the way to examine a flower or rock and was particularly interested in mosses and lichens. Linnaeus travelled clockwise around the coast of the Gulf of Bothnia, making major inland incursions from Umeå, Luleå and Tornio. He returned from his six-month long, over 2,000 kilometres (1,200 mi) expedition in October, having gathered and observed many plants, birds and rocks. Although Lapland was a region with limited biodiversity, Linnaeus described about 100 previously unidentified plants. These became the basis of his book Flora Lapponica. In Flora Lapponica, Linnaeus' ideas about nomenclature and classification were first used in a practical way, making this the first proto-modern Flora. The account covered 534 species, used the Linnaean classification system and included, for the described species, geographical distribution and taxonomic notes. Biologists of Pre-biology1707 – 1778, Carl Linnaeus (Carl von Linné)

10. Laid the foundations for the modern scheme of binomial nomenclature. He is known as the father of modern taxonomy, and is also considered one of the fathers of modern ecology. He tried to teach the students to think for themselves and not trust anybody, not even him. Since the initial release of Systema Naturae in 1735, the book had been expanded and reprinted several times; the tenth edition was released in 1758. This edition established itself as the starting point for zoological nomenclature, the equivalent of Species Plantarum. In December 1777, he had another stroke which greatly weakened him, and eventually led to his death on 10 January 1778 in Hammarby. Biologists of Pre-biology1707 – 1778, Carl Linnaeus (Carl von Linné)

11. His library and collections were left to his widow Sara and their children. Joseph Banks, an English botanist, wanted to buy the collection, but his son Carl refused and moved the collection to Uppsala. However, in 1783 Carl died and Sara inherited the collection, having outlived both her husband and son. She tried to sell it to Banks, but he was no longer interested; instead an acquaintance of his agreed to buy the collection. The acquaintance was a 24-year-old medical student, James Edward Smith, who bought the whole collection: 14,000 plants, 3,198 insects, 1,564 shells, about 3,000 letters and 1,600 books. Smith founded the Linnean Society of London five years later. Biologists of Pre-biology1707 – 1778, Carl Linnaeus (Carl von Linné)

12. Systema Naturae. The first edition of Systema Naturae was printed in the Netherlands in 1735. By the time it reached its 10th edition in 1758, it classified 4,400 species of animals and 7,700 species of plants. In it, the unwieldy names mostly used at the time. These binomials could serve as a label to refer to the species. Higher taxa were constructed and arranged in a simple and orderly manner. Although the system, now known as binomial nomenclature, was partially developed by the Bauhin brothers (see Gaspard Bauhin and Johann Bauhin) almost 200 years earlier, Linnaeus was the first to use it consistently throughout the work, including in monospecific genera, and may be said to have popularised it within the scientific community. Biologists of Pre-biology: Carl Linnaeus Major publications

13. Systema Naturae. In the first edition of Systema Naturae, Linnaeus subdivided the human species into four varieties based on continent and skin colour: "Europæus albus" (white European), "Americanus rubescens" (red American), "Asiaticus fuscus" (brown Asian) and "Africanus niger" (black African). In the tenth edition of Systema Naturae he changed the description of Asians' skin tone to "luridus" (yellow). Biologists of Pre-biology: Carl Linnaeus Major publications

14. Species Plantarum. It was first published in 1753, as a two-volume work. Its prime importance is perhaps that it is the primary starting point of plant nomenclature as it exists today. In 1754, Linnaeus divided the plant Kingdom into 25 classes (Genera Plantarum 5th edition). One, Cryptogamia, included all the plants with concealed reproductive parts (algae, fungi, mosses and liverworts and ferns). Biologists of Pre-biology: Carl Linnaeus Major publications

15. Aristotle (384 BC – 322 BC) was a Greek philosopher and polymath, a student of Plato and teacher of Alexander the Great. His writings cover many subjects, including physics, metaphysics, poetry, theater, music, logic, rhetoric, linguistics, politics, government, ethics, biology, and zoology.  He did perform original research in the natural sciences, e.g., botany, zoology, physics, astronomy, chemistry, meteorology, and several other sciences. Biologists of Pre-biology: Aristotle http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aristotle

16. Aristotle's writings on science are largely qualitative, as opposed to quantitative. Beginning in the 16th century, scientists began applying mathematics to the physical sciences, and Aristotle's work in this area was deemed hopelessly inadequate. His failings were largely due to the absence of concepts like mass, velocity, force and temperature. He had a conception of speed and temperature, but no quantitative understanding of them, which was partly due to the absence of basic experimental devices, like clocks and thermometers. Biologists of Pre-biology: Aristotle

17. Aristotle proposed a fifth element, Aether, in addition to the four proposed earlier by Empedocles. Earth, which is cold and dry; this corresponds to the modern idea of a solid. Water, which is cold and wet; this corresponds to the modern idea of a liquid. Air, which is hot and wet; this corresponds to the modern idea of a gas. Fire, which is hot and dry; this corresponds to the modern ideas of plasma and heat. Aether, which is the divine substance that makes up the heavenly spheres and heavenly bodies (stars and planets). Biologists of Pre-biology: Aristotle

18. Aristotle's classification of living things contains some elements which still existed in the 19th century. What the modern zoologist would call vertebrates and invertebrates, Aristotle called 'animals with blood' and 'animals without blood'(he was not to know that complex invertebrates do make use of hemoglobin, but of a different kind from vertebrates). Animals with blood were divided into live-bearing (humans and mammals), and egg-bearing (birds and fish). Invertebrates ('animals without blood') are insects, crustacea (divided into non-shelled – cephalopods – and shelled) and testacea (molluscs). In some respects, this incomplete classification is better than that of Linnaeus, who crowded the invertebrata together into two groups, Insecta and Vermes (worms). Biologists of Pre-biology: Aristotle