Chapter Fifteen

1. Chapter Fifteen Theories of Media and Society

2. Agenda Setting Theory • A broad-scope view of agenda setting considers three agendas: • Media agenda • Public agenda • Policy agenda • Agenda Setting Theory in the communication discipline has concentrated on the relationship between the media agenda and the public agenda

3. Agenda Setting Theory:The Core Proposition • Agenda setting is the process in which the news media lead the public in assigning importance to various public issues • Agenda setting scholarship began with an investigation of the 1968 presidential campaign by Max McCombs and Donald Shaw

4. Agenda Setting Theory:The First Study • The researchers first conducted a content analysis of newspaper and television coverage of the campaign • The researchers then interviewed undecided voters about what issues were important • These two agendas (media and public) were virtually identical

5. Agenda Setting Theory:Establishing causality • The correlation found between the media agenda and the public agenda could be interpreted two ways • Does the media agenda cause the public agenda, or vice versa? • Further research suggests that the major causal direction is from media to public (though there is some “mutual” influence)

6. Agenda Setting Theory:Theoretical Developments • Contingency factors • Audience need for orientation • Obtrusiveness of the issue • Effect of media on each other • Distinction between first and second-level agenda setting • Consideration of more complex dependent variables

7. Spiral of Silence Theory • Spiral of Silence Theory (SOS) was developed by Elisabeth Noelle-Neumann as an “all-encompassing” theory of public opinion • SOS relates several levels of analysis: psychological processes, interpersonal communication, and mass media

8. Spiral of Silence Theory:Major Components • SOS begins with the proposition that individuals are driven by a fear of isolation • Individuals also have an ability to assess the nature of public opinion through a quasi-statistical sense • When individuals believe public opinion is against them, they will thus be unwilling to speak

9. Spiral of Silence Theory:The Spiral Process • As these three factors work together, public opinion will spiral down and reflect dominant perceptions • The spiral of silence will be mitigated by several factors: • The spiral only applies to moral issues • “Hard core” advocates will always speak • The educated and affluent will often speak

10. Spiral of Silence Theory:Evidence and Extensions • Evidence for SOS has been relatively weak; thus extensions have been proposed • First, some suggest that the spiral of silence will work only with regard to valued reference groups • Second, some have looked at other factors that will predict an individual’s willingness to “speak out”

11. Spiral of Silence Theory:Critiques • SOS has been critiqued for its weak empirical support • SOS has also been critiqued with regard to its ideological base • SOS was “foreshadowed” in Noelle-Neumann’s early academic and journalistic work • This foreshadowing suggests the conservative base of SOS

12. Cultivation Theory • Cultivation Theory (CT) concentrates on one specific medium: Television • CT considers the ways in which television influences our socially constructed views of reality • CT developed by George Gerbner and his colleagues through longstanding research efforts

13. Cultivation Theory:Assumptions • Assumptions about the Nature of Television • Television is pervasive • Television is accessible • Television is coherent • Assumptions about the Nature of Viewing • We do not watch particular shows or genres of shows, but we view by the clock

14. Cultivation Theory:The Cultivation Effect Given these assumptions about television and viewing, the following effect is proposed: Cultivation describes the long-term and cumulative impact of television on our views of reality—the nature of the world and people within that world.

15. Cultivation Theory:Methods for Testing • Content Analysis: The “television world” is assessed through content analysis • Cultural Indicators: Viewers’ perceptions of the world are assessed through survey • In comparing light viewers with heavy viewers, researchers find that heavy viewers’ perceptions of reality are most in line with the “television world” view

16. Cultivation Theory:Critiques and Extensions • Major critique: The cultivation effect is generally found to be very small • Response to critique: First, any effect on views of reality is important. Second, several factors can be added to enhance predictive value of theory: • Mainstreaming • Resonance

17. Cultivation Theory:Critiques and Extensions (cont.) • Cultivation Theory has also been criticized with regard to assumptions about television and viewing • These critiques are especially relevant in view of changing technology • Cable and satellite offerings might mitigate assumption of coherence • Videorecording technology might mitigate assumption of viewing by the clock

18. Cultivation Theory:Critiques and Extensions (cont.) • Extension has been proposed to distinguish between first-order and second-order cultivation effects • First-order effect: Statistical descriptions of the world • Second-order effect: General nature of the world • Extension has been proposed to evaluate nature of cultivation relationship