CMSC 471 Fall 2011 Class #11 Thursday, October 6 Propositional and First-Order Logic

1. Professor Marie desJardins, mariedj@cs.umbc.edu CMSC 471Fall 2011Class #11Thursday, October 6Propositional and First-Order Logic

3. Chapter 7.4-7.8 Propositional Logic Some material adopted from notes by Andreas Geyer-Schulz and Chuck Dyer

4. Propositional Logic • Logical constants: true, false • Propositional symbols: P, Q, S, ... (atomic sentences) • Wrapping parentheses: ( … ) • Sentences are combined by connectives: ...and [conjunction]  ...or [disjunction] ...implies [implication / conditional] ..is equivalent [biconditional]  ...not [negation] • Literal: atomic sentence or negated atomic sentence

5. Examples of PL Sentences • (P  Q)  R “If it is hot and humid, then it is raining” • Q  P “If it is humid, then it is hot” • Q “It is humid.” • A better way: Ho = “It is hot” Hu = “It is humid” R = “It is raining”

6. Propositional Logic (PL) • A simple language useful for showing key ideas and definitions • User defines a set of propositional symbols, like P and Q. • User defines the semantics of each propositional symbol: • Ho means “It is hot” • Hu means “It is humid” • R means “It is raining” • A sentence (well formed formula) is defined as follows: • A symbol is a sentence • If S is a sentence, then S is a sentence • If S is a sentence, then (S) is a sentence • If S and T are sentences, then S  T, S  T, S  T, and S ↔ T are sentences • A sentence results from a finite number of applications of the above rules

7. A BNF Grammar of Sentences in Propositional Logic • S := <Sentence> ; • <Sentence> := <AtomicSentence> | <ComplexSentence> ; • <AtomicSentence> := "TRUE" | "FALSE" | • "P" | "Q" | "S" ; • <ComplexSentence> := "(" <Sentence> ")" | • <Sentence> <Connective> <Sentence> | • "NOT" <Sentence> ; • <Connective> := "AND" | "OR" | "IMPLIES" | "EQUIVALENT" ;

8. Some Terms • The meaning or semantics of a sentence determines its interpretation. • Given the truth values of all symbols in a sentence, it can be “evaluated” to determine its truth value (True or False). • A model for a KB is a “possible world” (assignment of truth values to propositional symbols) in which each sentence in the KB is True.

9. More Terms • A valid sentence or tautology is a sentence that is True under all interpretations, no matter what the world is actually like or what the semantics is. Example: “It’s raining or it’s not raining.” • An inconsistent sentence or contradiction is a sentence that is False under all interpretations. The world is never like what it describes, as in “It’s raining and it’s not raining.” • P entails Q, written P |= Q, means that whenever P is True, so is Q. In other words, all models of P are also models of Q.

10. Truth Tables

11. Truth Tables II The five logical connectives: A complex sentence:

12. Models of Complex Sentences

13. Inference Rules • Logical inference is used to create new sentences that logically follow from a given set of predicate calculus sentences (KB). • An inference rule is sound if every sentence X produced by an inference rule operating on a KB logically follows from the KB. (That is, the inference rule does not create any contradictions) • An inference rule is complete if it is able to produce every expression that logically follows from (is entailed by) the KB. (Note the analogy to complete search algorithms.)

14. Two Important Properties for Inference • Soundness: If KB |- Q then KB |= Q • If Q is derived from a set of sentences KB using a given set of rules of inference, then Q is entailed by KB. • Hence, inference produces only real entailments, or any sentence that follows deductively from the premises is valid. Completeness: If KB |= Q then KB |- Q • If Q is entailed by a set of sentences KB, then Q can be derived from KB using the rules of inference. • Hence, inference produces all entailments, or all valid sentences can be proved from the premises.

15. Sound Rules of Inference • Here are some examples of sound rules of inference • A rule is sound if its conclusion is true whenever the premise is true • Each can be shown to be sound using a truth table RULEPREMISE CONCLUSION Modus Ponens A, A  B B And Introduction A, B A  B And Elimination A  B A Double Negation A A Unit Resolution A  B, B A Resolution A  B, B  C A  C

16. Soundness of Modus Ponens

17. Soundness of the Resolution Inference Rule • (α ∨ β) ∧ (~β ∨ γ) → (α ∨ γ)

18. Proving Things • A proof is a sequence of sentences, where each sentence is either a premise or a sentence derived from earlier sentences in the proof by one of the rules of inference. • The last sentence is the theorem (also called goal or query) that we want to prove. • Example for the “weather problem” given above. 1. Hu Premise “It is humid” 2. HuHo Premise “If it is humid, it is hot” 3. Ho Modus Ponens(1,2) “It is hot” 4. (HoHu)R Premise “If it’s hot & humid, it’s raining” 5. HoHu And Introduction(1,3) “It is hot and humid” 6. R Modus Ponens(4,5) “It is raining”

19. Horn Sentences • A Horn sentence or Horn clause has the form: P1  P2  P3 ...  Pn  Q or alternatively P1  P2  P3 ...  Pn  Q where Ps and Q are non-negated atoms • To get a proof for Horn sentences, apply Modus Ponens repeatedly until nothing can be done • We will use the Horn clause form later (P  Q) = (P  Q)

20. Propositional Logic is a Weak Language • Hard to identify “individuals” (e.g., Mary, 3) • Can’t directly talk about properties of individuals or relations between individuals (e.g., “Bill is tall”) • Generalizations, patterns, regularities can’t easily be represented (e.g., “all triangles have 3 sides”) • First-Order Logic (abbreviated FOL or FOPC) is expressive enough to concisely represent this kind of information • FOL adds relations, variables, and quantifiers, e.g., • “Every elephant is gray”: x (elephant(x) → gray(x)) • “There is a white alligator”: x (alligator(X) ^ white(X))

21. Example • Consider the problem of representing the following information: • Every person is mortal. • Confucius is a person. • Confucius is mortal. • How can these sentences be represented so that we can infer the third sentence from the first two?

22. Example II • In PL we have to create propositional symbols to stand for all or part of each sentence. For example, we might have: P = “person”; Q = “mortal”; R = “Confucius” • so the above 3 sentences are represented as: P  Q; R  P; R  Q • Although the third sentence is entailed by the first two, we needed an explicit symbol, R, to represent an individual, Confucius, who is a member of the classes “person” and “mortal” • To represent other individuals we must introduce separate symbols for each one, with some way to represent the fact that all individuals who are “people” are also “mortal”

23. The “Hunt the Wumpus” Agent • Some atomic propositions: S12 = There is a stench in cell (1,2) B34 = There is a breeze in cell (3,4) W13 = The Wumpus is in cell (1,3) V11 = We have visited cell (1,1) OK11 = Cell (1,1) is safe. etc • Some rules: (R1) S11 W11  W12  W21 (R2)  S21 W11  W21  W22  W31 (R3)  S12 W11  W12  W22  W13 (R4) S12  W13  W12  W22  W11 etc. • Note that the lack of variables requires us to give similar rules for each cell

24. After the Third Move • We can prove that the Wumpus is in (1,3) using the four rules given. • See R&N section 7.5

25. Proving W13 • Apply MP with S11 and R1:  W11  W12  W21 • Apply And-Elimination to this, yielding three sentences:  W11,  W12,  W21 • Apply MP to ~S21 and R2, then apply And-Elimination:  W22,  W21,  W31 • Apply MP to S12 and R4 to obtain: W13  W12  W22  W11 • Apply Unit Resolution on (W13  W12  W22  W11) and W11: W13  W12  W22 • Apply Unit Resolution with (W13  W12  W22) and W22: W13  W12 • Apply UR with (W13  W12) and W12: W13 • QED

26. Problems with the Propositional Wumpus Hunter • Lack of variables prevents stating more general rules • We need a set of similar rules for each cell • Change of the KB over time is difficult to represent • Standard technique is to index facts with the time when they’re true • This means we have a separate KB for every time point

28. Summary • The process of deriving new sentences from old one is called inference. • Sound inference processes derives true conclusions given true premises • Complete inference processes derive all true conclusions from a set of premises • A valid sentence is true in all worlds under all interpretations • If an implication sentence can be shown to be valid, then—given its premise—its consequent can be derived • Different logics make different commitments about what the world is made of and what kind of beliefs we can have regarding the facts • Logics are useful for the commitments they do not make because lack of commitment gives the knowledge base engineer more freedom • Propositional logic commits only to the existence of facts that may or may not be the case in the world being represented • It has a simple syntax and simple semantics. It suffices to illustrate the process of inference • Propositional logic quickly becomes impractical, even for very small worlds

29. First-Order Logic Chapter 8 Some material adopted from notes by Andreas Geyer-Schulz

30. First-Order Logic • First-order logic (FOL) models the world in terms of • Objects, which are things with individual identities • Properties of objects that distinguish them from other objects • Relations that hold among sets of objects • Functions, which are a subset of relations where there is only one “value” for any given “input” • Examples: • Objects: Students, lectures, companies, cars ... • Relations: Brother-of, bigger-than, outside, part-of, has-color, occurs-after, owns, visits, precedes, ... • Properties: blue, oval, even, large, ... • Functions: father-of, best-friend, second-half, one-more-than ...

31. User Provides • Constant symbols, which represent individuals in the world • Mary • 3 • Green • Function symbols, which map individuals to individuals • father-of(Mary) = John • color-of(Sky) = Blue • Predicate symbols, which map individuals to truth values • greater(5,3) • green(Grass) • color(Grass, Green)

32. FOL Provides • Variable symbols • E.g., x, y, foo • Connectives • Same as in PL: not (), and (), or (), implies (), if and only if (biconditional ) • Quantifiers • Universal x or (Ax) • Existential x or (Ex)

33. Sentences are Built from Terms and Atoms • A term (denoting a real-world individual) is a constant symbol, a variable symbol, or an n-place function of n terms. x and f(x1, ..., xn) are terms, where each xi is a term. A term with no variables is a ground term • An atomic sentence(which has value true or false) is an n-place predicate of n terms • A complex sentence is formed from atomic sentences connected by the logical connectives: P, PQ, PQ, PQ, PQ where P and Q are sentences • A quantified sentence adds quantifiers  and  • A well-formed formula (wff) is a sentence containing no “free” variables. That is, all variables are “bound” by universal or existential quantifiers. (x)P(x,y) has x bound as a universally quantified variable, but y is free.

34. A BNF for FOL S := <Sentence> ; <Sentence> := <AtomicSentence> | <Sentence> <Connective> <Sentence> | <Quantifier> <Variable>,... <Sentence> | "NOT" <Sentence> | "(" <Sentence> ")"; <AtomicSentence> := <Predicate> "(" <Term>, ... ")" | <Term> "=" <Term>; <Term> := <Function> "(" <Term>, ... ")" | <Constant> | <Variable>; <Connective> := "AND" | "OR" | "IMPLIES" | "EQUIVALENT"; <Quantifier> := "EXISTS" | "FORALL" ; <Constant> := "A" | "X1" | "John" | ... ; <Variable> := "a" | "x" | "s" | ... ; <Predicate> := "Before" | "HasColor" | "Raining" | ... ; <Function> := "Mother" | "LeftLegOf" | ... ;

35. Quantifiers • Universal quantification • (x)P(x) means that P holds for all values of x in the domain associated with that variable • E.g., (x) dolphin(x)  mammal(x) • Existentialquantification • ( x)P(x) means that P holds for some value of x in the domain associated with that variable • E.g., ( x) mammal(x)  lays-eggs(x) • Permits one to make a statement about some object without naming it

36. Quantifiers • Universal quantifiers are often used with “implies” to form “rules”: (x) student(x)  smart(x) means “All students are smart” • Universal quantification is rarely used to make blanket statements about every individual in the world: (x)student(x)smart(x) means “Everyone in the world is a student and is smart” • Existential quantifiers are usually used with “and” to specify a list of properties about an individual: (x) student(x)  smart(x) means “There is a student who is smart” • A common mistake is to represent this English sentence as the FOL sentence: (x) student(x)  smart(x) • But what happens when there is a person who is not a student?

37. Quantifier Scope • Switching the order of universal quantifiers does not change the meaning: • (x)(y)P(x,y) ↔ (y)(x) P(x,y) • Similarly, you can switch the order of existential quantifiers: • (x)(y)P(x,y) ↔ (y)(x) P(x,y) • Switching the order of universals and existentials does change meaning: • Everyone likes someone: (x)(y) likes(x,y) • Someone is liked by everyone: (y)(x) likes(x,y)

38. Connections between All and Exists We can relate sentences involving  and  using De Morgan’s laws: (x) P(x) ↔(x) P(x) (x) P ↔ (x) P(x) (x) P(x) ↔ (x) P(x) (x) P(x) ↔(x) P(x)

39. Quantified Inference Rules • Universal instantiation • x P(x)  P(A) • Universal generalization • P(A)  P(B) …  x P(x) • Existential instantiation • x P(x) P(F)  skolem constant F • Existential generalization • P(A)  x P(x)

40. Universal Instantiation(a.k.a. Universal Elimination) • If (x) P(x) is true, then P(C) is true, where C is any constant in the domain of x • Example: (x) eats(Ziggy, x)  eats(Ziggy, IceCream) • The variable symbol can be replaced by any ground term, i.e., any constant symbol or function symbol applied to ground terms only

41. Existential Instantiation(a.k.a. existential Elimination) • From (x) P(x) infer P(c) • Example: • (x) eats(Ziggy, x)  eats(Ziggy, Stuff) • Note that the variable is replaced by a brand-new constant not occurring in this or any other sentence in the KB • Also known as skolemization; constant is a skolem constant • In other words, we don’t want to accidentally draw other inferences about it by introducing the constant • Convenient to use this to reason about the unknown object, rather than constantly manipulating the existential quantifier

42. Existential Generalization(a.k.a. Existential Introduction) • If P(c) is true, then (x) P(x) is inferred. • Example eats(Ziggy, IceCream)  (x) eats(Ziggy, x) • All instances of the given constant symbol are replaced by the new variable symbol • Note that the variable symbol cannot already exist anywhere in the expression

43. Translating English to FOL Every gardener likes the sun. x gardener(x)  likes(x,Sun) You can fool some of the people all of the time. x t person(x) time(t)  can-fool(x,t) You can fool all of the people some of the time. x t (person(x)  time(t) can-fool(x,t)) x (person(x)  t (time(t) can-fool(x,t)) All purple mushrooms are poisonous. x (mushroom(x)  purple(x))  poisonous(x) No purple mushroom is poisonous. x purple(x)  mushroom(x)  poisonous(x) x (mushroom(x)  purple(x)) poisonous(x) There are exactly two purple mushrooms. x y mushroom(x)  purple(x)  mushroom(y)  purple(y) ^ (x=y)  z (mushroom(z)  purple(z))  ((x=z)  (y=z)) Clinton is not tall. tall(Clinton) X is above Y iff X is on directly on top of Y or there is a pile of one or more other objects directly on top of one another starting with X and ending with Y. x y above(x,y) ↔ (on(x,y) z (on(x,z)  above(z,y))) Equivalent Equivalent

44. And Now, for Something Completely Different... She's a witch! Burn her!  ?

45. Monty Python Logic • FIRST VILLAGER: We have found a witch. May we burn her? • ALL: A witch! Burn her! • BEDEVERE: Why do you think she is a witch? • SECOND VILLAGER: She turned me into a newt. • B: A newt? • V2(after looking at himself for some time): I got better. • ALL: Burn her anyway. • B: Quiet! Quiet! There are ways of telling whether she is a witch.

46. Monty Python cont. • B: Tell me… what do you do with witches? • ALL: Burn them! • B: And what do you burn, apart from witches? • V4: …wood? • B: So why do witches burn? • V2(pianissimo): because they’re made of wood? • B: Good. • ALL: I see. Yes, of course.

47. Monty Python cont. • B: So how can we tell if she is made of wood? • V1: Make a bridge out of her. • B: Ah… but can you not also make bridges out of stone? • ALL: Yes, of course… um… er… • B: Does wood sink in water? • ALL: No, no, it floats. Throw her in the pond. • B: Wait. Wait… tell me, what also floats on water? • ALL: Bread? No, no no. Apples… gravy… very small rocks… • B: No, no, no,

48. Monty Python cont. • KING ARTHUR: A duck! • (They all turn and look at Arthur. Bedevere looks up, very impressed.) • B: Exactly. So… logically… • V1 (beginning to pick up the thread): If she… weighs the same as a duck… she’s made of wood. • B: And therefore? • ALL: A witch!

49. Monty Python Fallacy #1 • x witch(x)  burns(x) • x wood(x)  burns(x) • ------------------------------- •  x witch(x)  wood(x) • p  q • r  q • --------- • p  r Fallacy: Affirming the conclusion

50. Monty Python Near-Fallacy #2 • wood(x)  can-build-bridge(x) • ----------------------------------------- •  can-build-bridge(x)  wood(x) • B: Ah… but can you not also make bridges out of stone?