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Query Processing

Query Processing. Review. Support for data retrieval at the physical level: Indices : data structures to help with some query evaluation: SELECTION queries (ssn = 123) RANGE queries (100 <= ssn <=200)

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Query Processing

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  1. Query Processing

  2. Review • Support for data retrieval at the physical level: • Indices: data structures to help with some query evaluation: • SELECTION queries (ssn = 123) • RANGE queries (100 <= ssn <=200) • Index choices: Primary vs secondary, dense vs sparse, ISAM vs B+-tree vs Extendible Hashing vs Linear Hashing • Sometimes, indexes not useful, even for SELECTION queries. • And what about join queries or other queries not directly supported by the indices? How do we evaluate these queries? • What decides these implementation choices? Ans: Query Processor(one of the most complex components of a database system)

  3. QP & O SQL Query Query Processor Data: result of the query

  4. QP & O SQL Query Query Processor Parser Algebraic Expression Query Optimizer Execution plan Evaluator Data: result of the query

  5. QP & O Query Optimizer Algebraic Representation Query Rewriter Algebraic Representation Data Stats Plan Generator Query Execution Plan

  6. Query Processing and Optimization Parser / translator (1st step) Input: SQL Query (or OQL, …) Output: Algebraic representation of query (relational algebra expression) Eg SELECT balance FROM account WHERE balance < 2500 balance(balance2500(account)) or balance balance2500 account

  7. Query Processing & Optimization Plan Generator produces: Query execution plan • Algorithms of operators that read from disk: • Sequential scan • Index scan • Merge-sort join • Nested loop join • ….. Plan Evaluator (last step) Input: Query Execution Plan Output: Data (Query results)

  8. Query Processing & Optimization Query Rewriting Input: Algebraic representation of query Output: Algebraic representation of query Idea: Apply heuristics to generate equivalent expression that is likely to lead to a better plan e.g.: amount > 2500 (borrower loan) borrower (amount > 2500(loan)) Why is 2nd better than 1st?

  9. Equivalence Rules 1. Conjunctive selection operations can be deconstructed into a sequence of individual selections. 2. Selection operations are commutative. 3. Only the last in a sequence of projection operations is needed, the others can be omitted. • Selections can be combined with Cartesian products and theta joins. • (E1X E2) = E1 E2 • 1(E12 E2) = E11 2E2

  10. Query Processing & Optimization Plan Generator Input: Algebraic representation of query Output: Query execution plan Idea: • generate alternative plans for evaluating a query • amount > 2500 • Estimate cost for each plan • Choose the plan with the lowest cost COST: approx., counts sources of latency Sequential scan Index scan

  11. Query Processing & Optimization Goal: generate plan with minimum cost (i.e., fast as possible) Cost factors: • CPU time (trivial compared to disk time) • Disk access time • main cost in most DBs • Network latency • Main concern in distributed DBs Our metric: count disk accesses

  12. Cost Model How do we predict the cost of a plan? Ans: Cost model • For each plan operator and each algorithm we have a • cost formula • Inputs to formulas depend on relations, attributes, etc. • Database maintains statistics about relations for • this (Metadata)

  13. Metadata • Given a relation r, DBMS likely maintains the following metadata: • Size (# tuples in r) nr • Size (# blocks in r) br • Block size (# tuples per block) fr (typically br =  nr / fr  ) • Tuple size (in bytes) sr • Attribute Values V(att, r) (for each attribute att in r, # of different values) • Selection Cardinality SC(att, r) (for each attribute att in r, expected size of a selection: att = K (r ) )

  14. Example V(balance, account) = 3 V(acct_no, account) = 6 SC (balance, account) = 2 ( nr / V(att, r)) naccount = 6 saccount = 33 bytes faccount =4K/33

  15. Some typical plans and their costs Query: att = K (r ) • A1 (linear search). Scan each file block and test all records to see whether they satisfy the selection condition. • Cost estimate (number of disk blocks scanned) = br • br denotes number of blocks containing records from relation r • If selection is on a key attribute, cost = (br /2) • stop on finding record (on average in the middle of the file) • Linear search can be applied regardless of • selection condition or • ordering of records in the file, or • availability of indices EA1 = br (if attr is not a key) br /2 (if attr is a key)

  16. Selection Operation (Cont.) Query: att = K (r ) • A2 (binary search). Applicable if selection is an equality comparison on the attribute on which file is sorted. • Requires that the blocks of a relation are sorted and stored contiguously. • Cost estimate: • log2(br) — cost of locating the first tuple by a binary search on the blocks • Plus number of blocks containing records that satisfy selection condition EA2 = log2 (br ) + SC (att, r) / fr - 1 What is the cost if att is a key? less the one you already found EA2 = log2(br)

  17. Example Account (bname, acct_no, balance) Query:bname =“Perry”( Account ) naccount = 10,000 tuples faccount = 20 tuples/block baccount== 10,000 / 20 = 500 blocks V(bname, Account) = 50 values SC(bname, Account) = 10,000 / 50  = 200 tuples Assume sorted on bname Cost Estimates (comparing our two algorithms): A1: EA1 = nAccount / fAccount  = 10,000 / 20  = 500 I/O’s A2: EA2 = log2(bAccount) + SC(bname, Account) / faccount -1 = 9 + 9 = 18 I/O’s

  18. More Plans for selection • What if there’s an index (B+Tree) on att? We need metadata on size of index (i). DBMS keeps track of: • Index height: HTi • Index “Fan Out”: fi Average # of children per node (not same as order.) • Index leaf nodes: LBi Note: HTi ~ logfi(LBi )

  19. B+-treesREMINDER B+-tree of order 3: This is a primary index root: internal node 6 9 < 6 ≥ 9 ≥ 6 < 9 leaf node 4 3 6 7 9 13 (3, Joe, 23) (4, John, 23) Data File (3, Bob, 23) ………… ………… …………

  20. B+Tree, Another Look i HTi Leaf nodes 3 3 3 3 3 4 4 4 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 2 2 2 2 3 3 3 Data File SC(att, r) / fr = 14 / 7 14 tuples / 7 tuples per block = 2 blocks

  21. More Plans for selection Query: att = K (r ) • A3: Index scan, Primary (B+-Tree) Index What: Follow primary index, searching for key K Prereq: Primary index on att, i Cost: • EA3 = HTi + 1, if att is a candidate key • EA3 = HTi+1+SC(att, r) / fr, if not Remember for primary index, data file is sorted => sparse index Number of blocks containing att=K in data file

  22. Secondary IndexingREMINDER secondary index: typically, with ‘postings lists’ Postings lists

  23. B+Tree, Secondary Index i HTi 3 Posting List 1 2 3 3 4 9 4 4 3 2 1 7 3 3 2 5 3 4 1 1 3 The number of records with value = 3 = # blocks read SC(att, r)

  24. Query: att = K (r ) • A4:Index scan, Secondary Index Prereq: Secondary index on att, i What: Follow index, searching for key K Cost: If attnot a key: EA4 = HTi+ 1 + SC(att, r) bucket read for posting list YIKES! Index block reads File block reads (in worst case, each tuple on different block) Else, if attis a candidate key: EA4 = HTi+ 1 (no posting lists)

  25. How Big is the Posting List BPL r = Blocks in Posting List Pr = size of a pointer  NEW fr = size of a block Num occurrences Num pointers in a block

  26. Selections Involving Comparisons Query: Att  K (r ) • A5 (primary index, comparison). (Relation is sorted on Att) • For Att  K (r) use index to find first tuple  K and scan relation sequentially from there • For AttK (r) just scan relation sequentially until first tuple > K; do not use index Cost of first: EA5 =HTi + c / fr (where c is the cardinality of result) HTi Leaf nodes k . SORTED on Att Data File k

  27. Selections Involving Comparisons (cont.) Query: Att  K (r ) Cardinality: More metadata on r is needed: min (att, r) : minimum value of att in r max(att, r): maximum value of att in r Then the selectivity of Att  K (r ) is estimated as: (or nr /2 if min, max unknown) Intuition: assume uniform distribution of values between min and max min(attr, r) K max(attr, r)

  28. Plan generation: Range Queries Att K (r ) A6: (secondary index, comparison). Att is a candidate key Cost: EA6 = HTi -1+ #of leaf nodes to read + # of file blocks to read = HTi -1+ LBi * (c / nr) + c, if att is a candidate key • There will be c file pointers for a key. HTi ... Leaf nodes k+m k, k+1 k+1 ... File k+m k

  29. Plan generation: Range Queries A6: (secondary index, range query). Att is NOT a candidate key Query: K≤ Att ≤ K+m (r ) HTi ... Leaf nodes k+m k, k+1 ... Posting Lists File k ... k k+1 k+m ...

  30. Cost: EA6 = HTi -1 + # leaf nodes to read + # file blocks to read + # posting list blocks to read = HTi -1+ LBi * (c / nr) + c + x where x accounts for the posting lists computed like before.

  31. Cardinalities Cardinality: the number of tuples in the query result (i.e., size) Why do we care? Ans: Cost of every plan depends on nr e.g.Linear scan: br =  nr / fr But, what if r is the result of another query? Must know the size of query results as well as cost Size of att = K (r ) ? ans: SC(att, r)

  32. Join Operation • Size and cost of plans for join operation • Running example: depositor customer Metadata: ncustomer = 10,000 ndepositor = 5000 fcustomer = 25 fdepositor = 50 bcustomer= 400 bdepositor= 100 V(cname, depositor) = 2500 (each depositor has on average 2 accts) cname in depositor is a foreign key (from customer) Depositor (cname, acct_no) Customer (cname, cstreet, ccity)

  33. Cardinality of Join Queries • What is the cardinality (number of tuples) of the join? E1: Cartesian product: ncustomer * ndepositor = 50,000,000 E2: Attribute cname common in both relations, 2500 different cnames in depositor Size: ncustomer * (avg # tuples in depositor with same cname) = ncustomer * (ndepositor / V(cname, depositor)) = 10,000 * (5000 / 2500) = 20,000

  34. Cardinality of Join Queries E3: cname is a key in customer cname is a foreign key (exhaustive) in depositor (Star schema case) Size: ndepositor * (avg # of tuples in customer with same cname) = ndepositor * 1 = 5000 key Note: If cname is a key for Customer but NOT an exhaustive foreign key for Depositor, then 5000 is an UPPER BOUND Some customer names may not match with any customers in Depositor (have no accounts)

  35. Cardinality of Joins in general Assume join: R S (common attributes are not keys) • If R, S have no common attributes: nr * ns • If R,S have attribute A in common: (take min) • These are not the same when V(A,s) ≠ V(A,r). • When this is true, there are likely to be dangling tuples. • Thus, the smaller is likely to be more accurate.

  36. Nested-Loop Join Query: R S Algorithm 1: Nested Loop Join Idea: t1 u1 Blocks of... t2 u2 t3 u3 R S results Compare: (t1, u1), (t1, u2), (t1, u3) ..... Then: GET NEXT BLOCK OF S Repeat: for EVERY tuple of R

  37. Nested-Loop Join Query: R S Algorithm 1: Nested Loop Join for each tuple tr in R do for each tuple usin S dotest pair (tr,us) tosee if they satisfy the join condition if they do (a “match”), add tr• usto the result. R is called the outerrelation and S the inner relation of the join.

  38. Nested-Loop Join (Cont.) Cost: • Worst case, if buffer size is 3 blocks br + nr bsdisk accesses. • Best case: buffer big enough for entire INNER relation + 2 br + bs disk accesses. • Assuming worst case memory availability cost estimate is • 5000  400 + 100 = 2,000,100 disk accesses with depositor as outer relation, and • 10000  100 + 400 = 1,000,400 disk accesses with customer as the outer relation. • If smaller relation (depositor) fits entirely in memory (+ 2 more blocks), the cost estimate will be 500 disk accesses.

  39. Join Algorithms Query: R S Algorithm 2: Block Nested Loop Join Idea: t1 u1 Blocks of... t2 u2 t3 u3 R S results Compare: (t1, u1), (t1, u2), (t1, u3) (t2, u1), (t2, u2), (t2, u3) (t3, u1), (t3, u2), (t3, u3) Then: GET NEXT BLOCK OF S Repeat: for EVERY BLOCK of R

  40. Block Nested-Loop Join • Block Nested Loop Join for each block BRofR dofor each block BSof S do for each tuple trin BR do for each tuple usin Bsdo beginCheck if (tr,us) satisfy the join condition if they do (“match”), add tr• usto the result.

  41. Block Nested-Loop Join (Cont.) Cost: • Worst case estimate (3 blocks): br bs + br block accesses. • Best case: br+ bsblock accesses. Same as nested loop. • Improvements to nested loop and block nested loop algorithms for a buffer with M blocks: • In block nested-loop, use M — 2 disk blocks as blocking unit for outer relation, where M = memory size in blocks; use remaining two blocks to buffer inner relation and output Cost = br / (M-2)  bs + br • If equi-join attribute forms a key on inner relation, stop inner loop on first match • Scan inner loop forward and backward alternately, to make use of the blocks remaining in buffer (with LRU replacement)

  42. Join Algorithms Query: R S Algorithm 3: Indexed Nested Loop Join Idea: t1 Blocks of... t2 t3 R S results (fill w/ blocks of S or index blocks) Assume A is the attribute R,S have in common For each tuple ti of R if ti.A = K then use the index to compute att = K (S ) Demands: index on A for S

  43. Indexed Nested-Loop Join Indexed Nested Loop Join • For each tuple tRin the outer relation R, use the index to look up tuples in S that satisfy the join condition with tuple tR. • Worst case: buffer has space for only one page of R, and, for each tuple in R, we perform an index lookup on s. • Cost of the join: br + nr c • Where c is the cost of traversing index and fetching all matching s tuples for one tuple or r • c can be estimated as cost of a single selection on s using the join condition. • If indices are available on join attributes of both R and S,use the relation with fewer tuples as the outer relation.

  44. Example of Nested-Loop Join Costs Query: depositor customer (cname, acct_no) (cname, ccity, cstreet) Metadata: customer: ncustomer = 10,000 fcustomer = 25 bcustomer = 400 depositor: ndepositor = 5000 fdepositor = 50 bdepositor = 100 V (cname, depositor) = 2500 i is a primary index on cname (dense) for customer Fanout for i, fi = 20

  45. Plan generation for Joins Alternative 1: Block Nested Loop 1a: customer = OUTER relation depositor = INNER relation cost: bcustomer + bcustomer * bdepositor= 400 +(100 * 400 ) = 40,400 1b: customer = INNER relation depositor = OUTER relation cost: bdepositor + bdepositor * bcustomer = 100 +(400 *100) = 40,100

  46. Plan generation for Joins Alternative 2: Indexed Nested Loop We have an index on cname for customer. Depositor is the outer relation Cost: bdepositor + ndepositor * c = 100 +(5000 *c ) c is the cost of evaluating a selection cname = K using the index. Primary index on cname, cname a key for customer c = HTi +1

  47. Plan generation for Joins What is HTi ? cname a key for customer. V(cname, customer) = 10,000 fi = 20, i is dense LBi =  10,000/20 = 500 HTi ~ logfi(LBi) + 1 = log20 500 + 1 = 4 Cost of index nested loop is: = 100 + (5000 * (4)) = 20,100 Block accesses (cheaper than NLJ)

  48. pR pS Another Join Strategy Query: R S Algorithm 4: Merge Join Idea: suppose R, S are both sorted on A (A is the common attribute) A A 2 2 3 5 1 2 3 4 ... ... Compare: (1, 2) advance pR (2, 2) match, advance pS  add to result (2, 2) match, advance pS  add to result (2, 3) advance pR (3, 3) match, advance pS add to result (3, 5) advance pR (4, 5) read next block of R

  49. Merge-Join GIVEN R, S both sorted on A • Initialization • Reserve blocks of R, S in buffer reserving one block for result • Pr= 1, Ps =1 • Join (assuming no duplicate values on A in R) WHILE !EOF( R) && !EOF(S) DO if BR[Pr].A == BS[Ps].A then output to result; Ps++ else if BR[Pr].A < BS[Ps].A then Pr++ else (same for Ps) if Pr or Ps point past end of block, read next block and set Pr(Ps) to 1

  50. Cost of Merge-Join • Each block needs to be read only once (assuming all tuples for any given value of the join attributes fit in memory) • Thus number of block accesses for merge-join is bR + bS • But.... What if one/both of R,S not sorted on A? Ans: May be worth sorting first and then perform merge join (called Sort-Merge Join) Cost: bR + bS + sortR + sortS

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