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Stoicism. Influential philosophy in Greece and Rome Dominant among intellectuals in Rome Borrowed from Greeks Appealed to Roman sense of law, order, and virtue Honored natural law Controlled passions as pathway to true freedom
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Stoicism • Influential philosophy in Greece and Rome • Dominant among intellectuals in Rome • Borrowed from Greeks • Appealed to Roman sense of law, order, and virtue • Honored natural law • Controlled passions as pathway to true freedom • Pain, grief, and joy not permitted to affect outward or inward state • Balanced and guided by reason alone
Slavery • Like many societies, slavery was vital to economic structure in Roman Republic and Empire • Slaves served as farm hands, manual laborers, domestic servants, teachers, tutors • Backbone of workforce • Prisoners of war were largest source • 2 million people enslaved at close of Republic • ONE IN FOUR PEOPLE • Number grew during empire
Slavery • Slaves were ‘chattel’ • Property • Master held power over life and death • Christianity didn’t affect institution of slavery initially • Many Roman slaves converted • Why did Christianity appeal to slaves • Several early Christian leaders were former slaves, including Popes
Foreign Cults • Brought primarily by soldiers • Differed from Roman cults, because it invited personal religious belief • Mithras: fraternal organization • Cultivated virtues important to soldiers • Some rituals similar to Christianity • Communal meal—shared flesh symbolizing their god • Believed in personal salvation • Archeological evidence, but little surviving beliefs
Jews • Monotheistic • Special role in God’s plan—chosen people • History of suffering and oppression • Shunned religions/immoral ways of oppressor • Jewish world at Jesus’ time was crossroads • Latin • Hellenist • Jewish
Jewish History • Covenant God/Abraham • Enslaved in Egypt; led out of exile by Moses • United through gift of God’s law (Moses) • Return to Palestine under Joshua • Height of kingdom under David & Solomon • Temple—place for tablets given to Moses • Ornate, architectural feat • After Solomon, kingdom divided • Israel/Judah • Both defeated and exiled by Babylonians • Returned in 458 BC; rebuilt temple • Destroyed again in 70 AD, under Roman rule
Sadducees • Wealthy elite & politically/religiously conservative • Not large in number, but had considerable influence • Dominated Sanhedrin • Hellenized to greater extent, better relationship with Romans • Affected credibility w/in Jewish community • Pentateuch was legitimate authority, viewed scripture along literal lines • Rejected idea of afterlife & individual judgement
Pharisees • Progressive reforming group • Name comes from perishaya= separated ones • Lay scholars, not priests • Interpreted law and applied to daily life • Portrayed as Jesus’ chief opponents, but had many similarities • Resurrection of the body, divine punishment/reward in afterlife, human freedom, and angels • Sadducees disappeared after destruction of Temple (70 AD), Pharisees emerged as training group for Rabbis
King Herod • King of Judea • Learned of Messiah & planned to kill him • Slaughter of the Innocents
Holy Family • Joseph’s dream • Egypt • Second Dream • Nazareth vs. Galilee • Passover in Jerusalem—Jesus in temple
Deposit of Faith • Sacred Scripture and Sacred Tradition • Handed down by the Church from the time of Apostles • Contains all Christ taught, did and wanted to reveal • Entrusted to Apostles and handed down through successors-bishops
Jesus • Son of God • New Covenant-perfected Old Law through New Law of love and grace • Death on cross
Four Gospels • Evangelists • Matthew, Mark, Luke, John • Synoptic • Symbols • Matthew: Man-Christ’s humanity • Mark: Lion • Luke: Bull-priestly duties and temple sacrifices • John: Eagle-lofty language • Canonical-382 in Rome • Apocryphal
Pentecost • Jewish feast 50 days after Christ’s Resurrection • Father and Son sent third person of Trinity—Holy Spirit • Fears lifted and began to preach • Gift of tongues • Many converts • Annual feast • Birth moment of Church
The Church • Body of Christ and Temple of the Holy Spirit • Greek: thing belonging to the Lord • Ecclesia (Latin): assembly or congregation • Catechism: Church is both means and goal of God’s plan • Visible/Spirtual • Made up of God’s people
Church is • One • Holy • Catholic • Apostolic
Apostles • Apostalosfr.Apostellein (Greek): to send away • One who is sent • 12: pillars of Church & preachers • Matthias • Sts Paul and Barnabas • Variety of men: tax collector, friends, fishermen • Apostle vs. apostle
Apostolic Tradition • Preeminent: St. Peter & received teaching/instructions direct from Christ • Continued Jesus ministry of healing, preaching, and exorcising demons • Bishop is successor of Apostles who has received Christ's fullness • Apostolic Tradition through line of bishops until Christ returns • Martyrs: St. Stephen
St. Paul • Roman Jew; educated in Law; persecutor of the Way • Converts on road to Damascus • Great evangelizer: 13/27 NT epistles • Preaching to Gentiles • Christianity considered part of Jewish tradition • Acts of the Apostles • Cornelius: vision opening Church to Gentiles
St. Paul/Gentiles • Profound writer and theologian • Doctrine still holds true today • First written and developed theology • Gentiles: non Jews • Expanded church greatly
Council of Jerusalem • 49/50 • Questions related to ministry to Gentiles • Specifically following Mosaic Law • Peter/James (Jerusalem) • Avoid eating meat/blood of animals sacrificed to idols or had been strangled • Observe marriage laws • Dietary, circumcision, other aspects not imposed on Gentiles
Baptism • Jesus/John the Baptist: repentance • Jesus: Baptism of Holy Spirit • Sacrament: forgives original & personal sin • Catechumens: the instructed • 2-3 years of instruction • Develop strong foundation • Baptized on Easter Vigil or Pentecost • 1965 Vatican II reinstituted the catechumenate
Baptism of Infants • Common by third century • Universal by Medieval period • Some opposition: Tertullian • Origen encouraged it to free Original sin • St. Augustine supported in similar fashion • In dire need, anyone can administer baptism • Martyrdom: Baptism of Blood • Waiting until death bed
Agape • “Love” in Greek • Early Christian meal related to Eucharist • Often preceded Eucharist • Let to Eucharist abuses • Agape moved to evenings
Eucharist • Ritual of Mass developed over time • Canon did not exist until 4th century • Hymns, psalms, readings, collection for poor • Prayers and consecration—50s • “Thanksgiving” • Christ is present in Eucharist
Ichthys • Fish • Acrostic for “Jesus Christ, Son of God, Savior” • More widespread than cross
Other Early Christian Symbols • Anchor • Safety and hope • Often paired with ship—does not drift • Like a cross, but hidden • Sign of the Cross • Emerges in 3rd century • Tertullian: “Devotees of the Cross” • Various forms: forehead, hear, and mouth
Holy Days • Wednesdays & Fridays • Fasting & Penance • Day Christ suffered • Wednesday less clear, perhaps Judas • Jewish Sabbath: sundown Fri-sundown Sat • Sundays replaced Saturday for Christians • Jesus’ resurrection & Pentecost • Cover during persecutions—pagan worship day • Feast days emerged through the years
Papacy • Christ named Peter Head of the Church • Vicar of Christ • Bishop of Rome • Supreme authority very early • Epistle of Clement (Pope St. Clement 88-97) • St. Ignatius, Bishop of Antioch, • Affirms obedience to authority of Bishop of Rome
Influential Early Popes • Pope St. Leo (d 461) • Centralized Church governance in Rome • Pope St. Gelasius (d. 496) • Asserted primacy of Roman pontiff • First to use title “Vicar of Christ” • Earlier Popes used “Vicar of St. Peter”
Episcopacy • Bishops are successors of Apostles • Shepherded & guided flock (Church) • Baptized • Offered Mass • Celebrated Weddings • Ordained priests • Did all the sacramental work of the Church
Priesthood • Priest: contraction of Gk. presbyteros= presbyter • Church elders in early Church • Role of priests developed over centuries • Minister of Divine worship • Eucharist • Subordinate to Bishop—sworn canonical allegiance • Evidence of offering Mass in 2nd century • Hippolytus (170-236) • Apostolic Tradition--Evidence of ordination rites
Monotheism • Belief in one God • Jews • Christians • Muslims • Surrounded by polytheistic pagans • Many Christians killed b/c refused to worship emperors
Scriptures • Much of O.T. comes from Jewish canon • Pentateuch • Some of N.T. universally held • Matthew’s Gospel, Paul’s epistles • Revelations • 3rd Century canon included: • Gospels • 13 Paul’s letters • Acts • Revelation • 1 &2 Peter • 1,2,3 John
Canon • Definitive canon declared in 382 • Africa/Gaul a few years later • 5th century Church united on N.T. • O.T. came later • Council of Trent (1546) • Apocryphal work • Literature w/scriptural pretentions, but is not divinely inspired • Leadership judges inspiration w/guidance from Holy Spirit over centuries • Infancy Gospel of Thomas
Slavery • Widespread at Christ’s birth • 2 million of 7.5 million in Italy were slaves • Jesus never spoke directly on slavery • Mosaic law demanded merciful relationship between slave & master • Slaves often gained freedom • Treated with dignity • As Christianity spread, slowly undermined institution of slavery • Slaves accepted as equals in Church • Former slaves Sts. Linus & Anacletus become Pope
Just War Theory • Nonviolence comes naturally from Christ • St. Augustine first writes about Just War • Permits war in self defense • St. Thomas Aquinas refines Just War theory • War must be initiated on authority of sovereign (auctoritasprincipis) • Cause must be just (justacausa) • Those waging war must have good and right intentions (recta intentio) • Francisco de Vitoria adds war must be waged by proper means (debitomodo) • Important in contemporary context
Just War: Jus Ad Bellum • The current Catechism of the Catholic Church (n. 2309) defines the four conditions for determining the justice of a war as: • the damage inflicted by the aggressor on the nation or community of nations must be lasting, grave, and certain; • all other means of putting an end to it must have been shown to be impractical or ineffective; • there must be serious prospects of success; • the use of arms must not produce evils and disorders graver than the evil to be eliminated.
Apostolic Fathers • Name given to earliest Christian writers • Immediately after Apostles • Direct link to Apostles or communities • Wrote on religious and moral themes • Usually addressed to communities rather than the Church • Incredible witnesses to Faith • Include among others • St. Clement of Rome • St. Ignatius of Antioch • St. Polycarp of Smyrna • St. Papias
Apologists • Apologetics: Gk: Apologia=defense • Branch of theology to defend and explain Church • Field has four distinct periods • First: dawn of Christianity-collapse of Roman Empire (476) • Great opponents: Judaism, Gnostic heresies, pagan religions of Roman Empire
Apologists • Apologist refers to any writer of apologetic work • Group of Church Fathers known as Apologists • 2nd and 3rdceturies • Included: • St. Aristides • St. Justin Matyr • Tatian • Athenagoras • St. Theophilius • Minucius Felix • Tertullian • Most were not theologians • Apologetic writings to the Jews focused on following Mosaic law • Often included Christ as fulfillment of Jewish Law • Important apologetic work addressed Roman culture
Didache • Greek= teaching • The Doctrine of the Twelve Apostles • The Lord’s Teaching Through the Twelve Apostles to the Nations • Composed in first century • Christian morals, doctrine, and customs • Baptism, fasting, prayer, Eucharist, Church hierarchy • Author, exact date, location unknown • Many early Church Fathers used text • Lost for centuries, rediscovered in 1873
Tertullian (160-225) • Son of Roman centurion • Educated in Roman law • Paganism to Christianity, middle life • Apologist • Father of Latin Theology • Joined Montanist sect, wrote against certain doctrines, but never full Montanist • Opposed forgiveness for certain sins, especially those of sexual naure
Hippolytus (170-236) • Father of the Church and writer • Perhaps most important theologian in 2nd & 3rd century but forgotten largely because he wrote in Greek • Writings became extreme, especially concerning relationship b/w Father and Son • Followers elected him Antipope • Imprisoned under Maximus’ persecutions where he reconciles with Pope St. Pontian and the Church
Hippolytus and Apostolic Tradition • Much of his work is lost • Two most important survived in part • The Refutation of all Heresies • The Apostolic Tradition • Describes passing down of Faith of the Apostles • Insight into Baptism, Eucharist, ordination in 3rd cent • Becomes basis for 2nd Eucharistic Prayer (1970 Roman Missal)
Martyr • Those who died for Faith became most venerated saints • Most martyrs were everyday people who often found solidarity with other Christian martyrs • Martyros(Greek)=witness • Bears witness to Christ as the Way, the Truth, and the Life • Martyrdom understood as honor & priviledge • Martyrdom was not to be sought despite being grace and a gift
The Way • Christians referred to Faith as ‘the Way’ • Required life of integrity according to commandments and Gospels • Difficult and required sacrifice • Suffering was major component of early Christianity