逻辑 ，逻辑！ ——— 托福阅读中的常见逻辑关系

1. 逻辑，逻辑！ ———托福阅读中的常见逻辑关系 小马过河托福阅读老师白凤娇

2. 自我介绍：不扑腾，何以为青春 新浪围脖：小马过河白凤娇Sunshine

3. OUTLINE 托福考嘛？ 分别是啥？ 咋用？ 注意神马？

4. 托福考嘛？（1） 词汇 长难句 作者写作意图 文章观点

5. 托福考嘛？（2） • Sister 刘 瘫痪了； • Sister 刘 顽强地学习； • Sister 刘学会了多门外语 • Sister 刘学会了针灸

6. 自从喝了“不二不四鹿”牛奶， • 腰不酸了 • 腿不痛了 • 心脏也不跳了

7. 不考神马？ 假说： 螃蟹 听觉器官 在 脚上 实验1: 四肢健全， 放音， 跑走了 实验2：把脚砍掉， 放音， 没跑 结论： 螃蟹的听觉器官在脚上。

8. 分别是啥？ 因果 转折 并列 比较 否定

9. 咋用？ 1 细节题/EXCEPT题 2 推断题 3修辞目的题 4句子简化题 5句子插入题

10. 注意神马？ 隐性的逻辑关联词----小心遗漏（CEASE）

11. 因果 It might be that a “stiff” lip suppresses emotional response—as long as the lip is not quivering with fear or tension.

12. Perceiving an apparent connection between certain actions performed by the group and the result it desires, the group repeats, refines and formalizes those actions into fixed ceremonies, or rituals. why did some societies develop and repeat ceremonial actions? ○To establish a positive connection between the members of the society ○To help society members better understand the forces controlling their food supply ○To distinguish their beliefs from those of other societies ○To increase the society’s prosperity

13. The time had come to formulate a hypothesis. The investigators theorized that about 20 million years ago, the Mediterranean was a broad seaway linked to the Atlantic by two narrow straits. Crustal movements closed the straits, and the landlocked Mediterranean began to evaporate. which of the following was responsible for the evaporation of the Mediterranean’s waters? ○The movements of Earth’s crust ○The accumulation of sediment layers ○Changes in the water level of the Atlantic Ocean ○Changes in Earth’s temperature

14. …, the abundance of resources fluctuated sharply after the end of the glacial period because？

15. There were, however, fluctuations in the climatic conditions, with the consequences that wet conditions were followed by dry ones, so that the availability of plants and animals oscillated brusquely. locally abundant resources were quickly exhausted by hunter-gatherers the temperature became much higher in some areas over others different types of plants and animals became available as the climate changed the amount of rainfall varied radically from one period to the next

16. It can be inferred from paragraph 4 that it was difficult for people to change from farming back to hunting and gathering because

17. Farming originated in these conditions. Later on, it became very difficult to change because of the significant expansion of these populations. O people had become more used to different types of food O climatic conditions were no longer favorable for hunting and gathering O populations had become too large to be supported by hunting and gathering O the farmer's sedentary life was easier than the hunter-gatherer's nomadic life

18. scholars believe that wild cattle, horses, and mammoths are the animals most frequently portrayed in cave paintings for all of the following reasons EXCEPT:

19. The data they present suggest that the animals portrayed in the cave paintings were mostly the ones that the painters preferred for meat and for materials such as hides. For example, wild cattle (bovines) and horses are portrayed more often than we would expect by chance, probably because they were larger and heavier (meatier) than other animals in the environment. In addition, the paintings mostly portray animals that the painters may have feared the most because of their size, speed, natural weapons such as tusks and horns, and the unpredictability of their behavior. That is, mammoths, bovines, and horses are portrayed more often than deer and reindeer.

20. ○These animals were difficult to hunt because their unpredictable behavior. ○People preferred these animals for their meat and for their skins. ○The painters admired the beauty of these large animals. ○People feared these animals because of their size and speed.

21. Steven Mithen believes that all of the following contributed to the emergence of farming EXCEPT

22. Steven Mithen believes that all of the following contributed to the emergence of farming EXCEPT • the development of a mind flexible enough to come up with solutions to complex problems • the tendency to use plants and animals to acquire power • the tendency to emphasize the differences between animals and people • the ability to make tools that could be used for the large-scale harvesting of plants

23. It is archaeologist Steven Mithen's thesis, brilliantly developed in his book The Prehistory of the Mind (1996), that approximately 40,000 years ago the human mind developed cognitive fluidity, that is, the integration of the specializations of the mind: technical, natural history (geared to understanding the behavior and distribution of natural resources), social intelligence, and the linguistic capacity. Cognitive fluidity explains the appearance of art, religion, and sophisticated speech. Once humans possessed such a mind, they were able to find an imaginative solution to a situation of severe economic crisis such as the farming dilemma described earlier. Mithen proposes the existence of four mental elements to account for the emergence of farming: (1) the ability to develop tools that could be used intensively to harvest and process plant resources; (2) the tendency to use plants and animals as the medium to acquire social prestige and power; (3) the tendency to develop "social relationships" with animals structurally similar to those developed with people—specifically, the ability to think of animals as people (anthropomorphism) and of people as animals (totemism); and (4) the tendency to manipulate plants and animals.

24. As a result of crustal adjustments and faulting, the Strait of Gibraltar, where the Mediterranean now connects to the Atlantic, opened, and water cascaded spectacularly back into the Mediterranean. ○The strait of Gibraltar reopened when the Mediterranean and the Atlantic became connected and the cascades of water from one sea to the other caused crustal adjustments and faulting. ○The Mediterranean was dramatically refilled by water from the Atlantic when crustal adjustments and faulting opened the Strait of Gibraltar, the place where the two seas are joined.

25. As a result of crustal adjustments and faulting, the Strait of Gibraltar, where the Mediterranean now connects to the Atlantic, opened, and water cascaded spectacularly back into the Mediterranean. ○The cascades of water from the Atlantic to the Mediterranean were not as spectacular as the crustal adjustments and faulting that occurred when the Strait of Gibraltar was connected to those seas. ○As a result of crustal adjustments and faulting and the creation of the Strait of Gibraltar, the Atlantic and Mediterranean were connected and became a single sea with spectacular cascades of water between them.

26. The temperature increased dramatically in a short period of time (years rather than centuries), allowing for a growth of the hunting-gathering population due to the abundance of resources. O The resources needed by the growing hunting and gathering population increased rapidly once temperatures rose. O Dramatic temperature increases and the simultaneous growth of the hunting and gathering population led to the need for more resources.

27. The temperature increased dramatically in a short period of time (years rather than centuries), allowing for a growth of the hunting-gathering population due to the abundance of resources. • Higher temperatures led to the existence of increased resources, thus enabling the hunting and gathering population to grow. • The dramatic temperature increase occurred during the few years when abundant resources allowed the hunting and gathering population to grow.

28. Continued sedimentation—the process of deposits’ settling on the sea bottom—buries the organic matter and subjects it to higher temperatures and pressures, which convert the organic matter to oil and gas.

29. ○Higher temperatures and pressures promote sedimentation, which is responsible for petroleum formation. ○Deposits of sediments on top of organic matter increase the temperature of and pressure on the matter. ○Increase pressure and heat from the weight of the sediment turn the organic remains into petroleum. ○The remains of microscopic organisms transform into petroleum once they are buried under mud.

30. Paragraph 6: But neither the human imitative instinct nor a penchant for fantasy by itself leads to an autonomous theater. Therefore, additional explanations are needed. One necessary condition seems to be a somewhat detached view of human problems. For example, one sign of this condition is the appearance of the comic vision, since comedy requires sufficient detachment to view some deviations from social norms as ridiculous rather than as serious threats to the welfare of the entire group. Another condition that contributes to the development of autonomous theater is the em…

31. Why does the author mention “comedy”? ○To give an example of early types of theater ○To explain how theater helps a society respond to threats to its welfare ○To help explain why detachment is needed for the development of theater ○To show how theatrical performers become detached from other members of society

32. 转折 Contrary to the arguments of some that much of the pacific was settled by Polynesians accidentally marooned after being lost and adrift, it seems reasonable that this feat was accomplished by deliberate colonization expeditions that set out fully stocked with food and domesticated plants and animals.

33. ○ Some people have argued that the Pacific was settled by traders who became lost while transporting domesticated plants and animals. ○ The original Polynesian settlers were probably marooned on the islands, but they may have been joined later by carefully prepared colonization expeditions.

34. ○ Although it seems reasonable to believe that colonization expeditions would set out fully stocked, this is contradicted by much of the evidence. ○ The settlement of the Pacific islands was probably intentional and well planned rather than accidental as some people have proposed.

35. 比较 Like the stone of Roman wall, which were held together both by the regularity of the design and by that peculiarly powerful Roman cement, so the various parts of the Roman realm were bonded into a massive, monolithic entity by physical, organizational, and psychological controls.

36. ○The regularity and power of stone walls inspired Romans attempting to unify the parts of their realm. ○Although the Romans used different types of designs when building their walls, they used regular controls to maintain their realm. ○Several types of control united the Roman realm, just as design and cement held Roman walls together. ○Romans built walls to unite the various parts of their realm into a single entity, which was controlled by powerful laws.

37. Darwin held that many more individuals are produced than can find food and survive into adulthood. A struggle for survival follows. According to Darwin's theory of evolution, members of a species are forced to struggle for survival because ○not all individuals are skilled in finding food ○individuals try to defend their young against attackers ○many more individuals are born than can survive until the age of reproduction ○individuals with certain genes are more likely to reach adulthood

38. it was difficult for Smith to distinguish rock strata because？ Particularly in the younger strata, the rocks were often so similar that he had trouble distinguishing the strata, but he never had trouble telling the fossils apart.

39. ○the rocks from different strata closely resembled each other ○he was often unable to find fossils in the younger rock strata ○their similarity to each other made it difficult for him to distinguish one rock type from another ○the type of rock between two consistent strata was always the same

40. what is the advantage of hydroponics for research on nutrient deficiencies in plants? Much of the research on nutrient deficiencies is based on growing plants hydroponically, that is, in soilless liquid nutrient solutions. This technique allows researchers to create solutions that selectively omit certain nutrients and then observe the resulting effects on the plants.

41. ○It allows researchers to control what nutrients a plant receives. ○It allows researchers to observe the growth of a large number of plants simultaneously. ○It is possible to directly observe the roots of plants. ○It is unnecessary to keep misting plants with nutrient solutions.

42. It can be inferred from paragraph 6 that compared with standard practices for remediation of contaminated soils, phytoremediation After several years of cultivation and harvest, the site would be restored at a cost much lower than the price of excavation and reburial, the standard practice for remediation of contaminated soils.

43. ○does not allow for the use of the removed minerals for industrial purposes ○can be faster to implement ○is equally friendly to the environment ○is less suitable for soils that need to be used within a short period of time

44. 最高级 • According to paragraph 2, which of the following is true about heat reservoirs with a temperature in the range of 80° to 180° centigrade?

45. By far the most abundant form of geothermal energy occurs at the relatively low temperatures of 80° to 180° centigrade. Water circulated through heat reservoirs in this temperature range is able to extract enough heat to warm residential, commercial, and industrial spaces. More than 20,000 apartments in France are now heated by warm underground water drawn from a heat reservoir in a geologic structure near Paris called the Paris Basin. Iceland sits on a volcanic structure known as the Mid-Atlantic Ridge. Reykjavik, the capital of Iceland, is entirely heated by geothermal energy derived from volcanic heat.

46. By far the most abundant form of geothermal energy occurs at the relatively low temperatures of 80° to 180° centigrade. Water circulated through heat reservoirs in this temperature range is able to extract enough heat to warm residential, commercial, and industrial spaces. More than 20,000 apartments in France are now heated by warm underground water drawn from a heat reservoir in a geologic structure near Paris called the Paris Basin. Iceland sits on a volcanic structure known as the Mid-Atlantic Ridge. Reykjavik, the capital of Iceland, is entirely heated by geothermal energy derived from volcanic heat.

47. They are under international control. • They are more common than reservoirs that have a higher temperature. • Few of them produce enough heat to warm large industrial spaces. • They are used to generate electricity.

48. 否定 what change is evident in the art of the period following the Upper Paleolithic?

49. Consistent with this idea, according to the investigators, is the fact that the art of the cultural period that followed the Upper Paleolithic also seems to reflect how people got their food. But in that period, when getting food no longer depended on hunting large game animals (because they were becoming extinct), the art ceased to focus on portrayals of animals. ○This new art starts to depict small animals rather than large ones. ○This new art ceases to reflect the ways in which people obtained their food.

50. ○This new art no longer consists mostly of representations of animals. ○This new art begins to show the importance of hunting to the economy.