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Fire Safety Implications for Power Engineers

Fire Safety Implications for Power Engineers. Carl D. Wren, P.E. Chief Engineer Austin Fire Department. Fire Behavior – Fire Dynamics. FIRE Reference 16 a rapid (exponential growth), self sustaining oxidation process accompanied by the evolution of heat and light of varying intensities.

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Fire Safety Implications for Power Engineers

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  1. Fire Safety Implications for Power Engineers Carl D. Wren, P.E. Chief Engineer Austin Fire Department

  2. Fire Behavior – Fire Dynamics FIREReference 16a rapid (exponential growth), self sustaining oxidation process accompanied by the evolution of heat and light of varying intensities

  3. Fire Behavior – Fire Dynamics Mattress Fire, Reference 1

  4. Fire Behavior – Fire Dynamics • Human viability is affected by multiple products of combustion: • Heat (thermal burns, respiratory damage) • Smoke (particulate, vapor, and gaseous) • Effects include toxins and reduced visibility • Oxygen deprivation • Products of combustion vary by fuel but always include CO

  5. Fire Behavior – Fire Dynamics • Fire can be self limiting in common situations. Controlling Factors Are: • Available Fuel Supply (furniture, structure, other contents) • Available Oxidizer – Ventilated Fire or Unventilated Fire; Chemical Oxidizers • Design, Construction and Occupancy can contribute to these limitations (types and continuity of fuels and oxidizers)

  6. Heat Fuel Oxygen Fire Triangle or Tetrahedron

  7. Heat Transfer • Energy tends to move toward equilibrium – a body or material at a higher energy state will tend to transfer energy to a body (or bodies) at a lower energy state(s) • Heat Energy is transferred from a warm or more energetic body to a cooler or less energetic body by one of three mechanisms • conduction, convection, or radiation

  8. Types of Construction and Fire/Collapse Hazards • Fire Resistive Construction (I-FR, IA)Concrete and protected steel May or may not be compartmented Typical construction for high-rises • Typical Hazards Fires are generally content fires Not a severe “collapse” hazard (WTC, not normal hazards) Spalling of concrete Central HVAC as a smoke travel path (also floor/ceiling penetrations and voids) Hazards may be most obvious on floor above fire floor

  9. Emergencies Affecting Structures References – See Specific Incidents • High Rise Fires • 1911 Triangle Shirtwaist Company NY, NY • 1980 MGM Grand HotelLas Vegas, NV • 1986 Dupont PlazaSan Juan, Puerto Rico • 1988 1st Interstate BankLos Angeles, CA • 1991 One Meridian PlazaPhiladelphia, PA

  10. Triangle Shirtwaist Company 1911 - NY, NY (Reference 2) • March 25, 1911 • 10 Stories • 146 Deaths (female immigrant workers) • 62 Jumped • No Structural Failure • Resulted in Major Labor Law and Workplace Safety Changes

  11. 1988 1st Interstate BankLos Angeles, CA (Reference 7) • May 4, 1988 • Wilshire BV @ Hope Street • 62 Stories • Started on 12th Floor • Gutted 4 floors • No operable sprinklers • 1 Civilian death (security guard) • Fire spread vertically at least in part due to lack of seals at curtain walls • ~$50,000,000 loss

  12. 1991 One Meridian PlazaPhiladelphia, PA (Reference 8) • February 23, 1991 • 1414 South Penn Square • Improper penetration seals in mechanical rooms • 38 Stories • Started on 22 Floor • 8 Floors Gutted & Structural Damage on 10 Floors • 3 Firefighter deaths • Partial Sprinklers • Eventually demolished • ~$300,000,000 Loss

  13. MGM Grand HotelLas Vegas, Nevada (References 9, 10, & 13) • November 1, 1980 • 85 Deaths (60oC can sear the lungs) • Approximately700 Injuries • ~$30,000,000 loss (1980 dollars) • No structural collapse

  14. Type II Construction andFire/Collapse Hazards • Non-Combustible or Limited Combustible Construction (II-H, II-A) Metal, masonry, or concrete wall construction with metal roof • Some Typical Hazards Unprotected lightweight steel roof joist & I-Beams Roofs are typically flat w/ combustible weather covering Ignition of built-up roofing may be above ceilings & therefore above fire sprinklers Concentrated roof loading can result from HVAC units, etc. Steel expands ~2.54 cm (1”) per 3.05 m (10’) at 593oC (1100oF) Steel loses ~40% of load capacity after ~10min. @ 593oC (1100oF) (some conflicting positions on this data)

  15. Types of Construction and Fire/Collapse Hazards • Ordinary Construction (III) Freestanding masonry or brick walls * Can be FRTW in FR assembliesSolid wood joist flooring and roofing(this is typically within older buildings)Wood truss assemblies (typical in newer buildings) • Some Typical HazardsCombustible concealed spacesPeaked roof concealed spacesLack of or damaged draft or fire stoppingDecorative parapet wallsFire cut beams

  16. Types of Construction and Fire/Collapse Hazards • Heavy Timber Construction *Wood frame of large cross section (20.3 cm [8”] minimum dimension for vertical members and 15.2 cm [6”] minimum dimension horizontal members)* High fuel load is present in the structural members exclusive of contents * May include masonry walls with collapse hazards similar to ordinary construction * May survive long periods of fire exposure - but control in advanced stages of fire may be very difficult* Radiant heat exposures may be extreme

  17. Types of Construction and Fire/Collapse Hazards • Wood Frame Construction * Structure of light weight wood members (less than heavy timber dimensions) typically consisting of wood 5.08 cm (2”) thick by various widths* Entire frame is part of fuel package* Small dimensions can be compromised more quickly than heavy timber (5cm x 10 cm [2”x 4”] bearing members) * Braced Frame (mortised connections), Platform (sectional framing & multi-story), and Balloon Framing (fire & smoke travel paths) * Failure of wood frame bearing walls may trigger simultaneous collapse of floors and/or roof

  18. Centennial Condominium FireFriday December 13, 1996 • $12 million damage. • 1 square block destroyed. • 75 homeless. • More than 100 firefighters to control. • Had not been inspected in years. • Not in compliance with codes… • Source Austin Fire Department Incident Records

  19. Centennial CondominiumsAustin, Texas

  20. Centennial CondominiumsAustin, Texas

  21. Centennial Condominium FireFriday December 13, 1996

  22. Cocoanut Grove Nightclub FireBoston, MA (Reference 11) • November 28, 1942 • 492 known deaths • Contributing Factors – • Combustible finishes and furnishing • Locked exits • Possible overcrowding • State of available burn & smoke injury treatment • Firefighting limitations (manual & automatic)

  23. Beverly Hills Supper ClubSouthgate, Kentucky – 1977 (Reference 12) • May 28, 1977 • 165 known deaths • Contributing factors • Combustibility of finish materials (even after a major fire in 1970) • Exit design • Overcrowding • Lack of automatic detection and suppression

  24. STATION NIGHTCLUB FIRE(Reference 13) • February 17, 2003 • 100 deaths/250 injuries • Possible contributing factors • Pyrotechnics • Exiting arrangement/overcrowding • Door swing and broken door hardware • No sprinklers • Foam plastic finish materials

  25. STATION NIGHTCLUB FIRE • Place: West Warwick, RI • Structure: 1 story, <4,000 square feet • Occupancy: Nightclub • Legal Occupant Load: Between 300 and 360 (based on exiting capacity) • Estimated Actual Occupant Load: ~420 • No Fire Sprinklers

  26. Fire Consequences • In 2001 Fire Losses(Reference 3): • 6,196 deaths (2,451 on 9/11 + 3,745) • 21,100 injuries (800 on 9/11 + 20,300) • $44,023,000,000 in property loss • $33,440,000,000 related to 9/11 • $10,582,000,000 independent of 9/11

  27. Fire Consequences • In 2002 Fire Losses(Reference 4): • 3,380 deaths • 18,425 injuries • $10,337,000,000 in property loss • In 2003 Fire Losses(Reference 5): • 3,925 deaths • 18,125 injuries • $12,307,000,000 in property loss

  28. Fire Consequences • In 2004 Fire Losses(Reference 17): • 3,380 deaths • 15,525 injuries • $8,314,000,000 in property loss • In 2005 Fire Losses(Reference 17): • 3,105 deaths • 15,325 injuries • $9,193,000,000 in property loss

  29. EMERGENCY AND STANDBY POWER SYSTEMS Summary in IBC SECTION 2702 2702.1 Installation. Emergency and standby power systems shall be installed in accordance with the ICC Electrical Code, NFPA 110 and NFPA 111.

  30. Buildings and Occupancies Requiring Standby or Emergency Power • Emergency and standby power generators listed in accordance with UL 2200. Required Installations • Group A occupancies. • Smoke control systems. • Exit signs. • Means of egress illumination. • Accessible means of egress elevators. • Horizontal sliding doors.

  31. Buildings and Occupancies Requiring Standby or Emergency Power • Semiconductor fabrication facilities. • Membrane structures. • Hazardous materials. • Highly toxic and toxic materials. • Organic peroxides. • Pyrophoric materials. • Covered mall buildings.

  32. Buildings and Occupancies Requiring Standby or Emergency Power • High-rise buildings. • Underground buildings. • Group I-3 occupancies. • Airport traffic control towers.. • Elevators. • Smokeproof enclosures. • Maintenance. Emergency and standby power systems shall be maintained and tested in accordance with the International Fire Code.

  33. Standby Power for Covered Mall Buildings Covered mall buildings exceeding 50,000 square feet (4645 m2) shall be provided with standby power systems for the operation of the emergency voice/alarm communication system.

  34. Fire & Building Code Standby Power Requirements for High Rise Buildings A standby power system shall be provided for standby power loads specified in IBC Section 403.10.2. Special requirements for standby power systems. A generator set inside a building shall be located in a separate room enclosed with 2-hour fire-resistance-rated fire barrier assemblies. System supervision and manual start and transfer features are required at the fire command center.

  35. Fire & Building Code Standby Power Requirements for High Rise Buildings The following are classified as standby powerloads: 1. Power and lighting for the fire command center; 2. Electrically powered fire pumps; 3. Ventilation and automatic fire detection equipment for smokeproof enclosures. Standby power shall be provided for high rise elevators in accordance with IBC Section 3003.

  36. Fire & Building Code Emergency Power Requirements for High Rise Buildings An emergency power system complying with Section 2702 shall be provided for the following emergency power loads. The following are classified as emergency powerloads: 1. Exit signs and means of egress illumination required by IBC Chapter 10; 2. Elevator car lighting; 3. Emergency voice/alarm communications systems; 4. Automatic fire detection systems; and 5. Fire alarm systems.

  37. Standby Power for Atrium Buildings 404.6 Standby power. Equipment required to provide smoke control shall be connected to a standby power system in accordance with IBC Section 909.11.

  38. Fire & Building Code Power Supply Requirements for Underground Buildings A standby power system complying with Section 2702 shall be provided for the following standby power loads. The following loads are classified as standby power loads. 1. Smoke control system. 2. Ventilation and automatic fire detection equipment for smokeproof enclosures. 3. Fire pumps. Standby power shall be provided for elevators in accordancewith Section 3003. The standby power system shall pick up its connected loads within 60 seconds of failure of the normal power supply.

  39. Fire & Building Code Power Supply Requirements for Underground Buildings Emergency power. An emergency power system complying with Section 2702 shall be provided for the following emergency power loads. Emergency power loads. 1. Emergency voice/alarm communications systems. 2. Fire alarm systems. 3. Automatic fire detection systems. 4. Elevator car lighting. 5. Means of egress and exit sign illumination as required by Chapter 10.

  40. Fire & Building Code Power Supply Requirements for Airport Traffic Control Towers A standby power system that conforms to Section 2702 shall be provided in airport traffic control towers more than 65 feet (19 812 mm) in height. Power shall be provided to the following equipment: 1. Pressurization equipment, mechanical equipment and lighting. 2. Elevator operating equipment. 3. Fire alarm and smoke detection systems.

  41. Fire & Building Code Power Supply Requirements for Haz Mat Storage 414.5.4 Standby or emergency power. Where mechanical ventilation, treatment systems, temperature control, alarm, detection or other electrically operated systems are required, such systems shall be provided with an emergency or standby power system in accordance with the Electrical Code. Exceptions: 1. Storage areas for Class I and II oxidizers. 2. Storage areas for Class III, IV and V organic peroxides. 3. Storage, use and handling areas for highly toxic or toxic materials as provided for in the International Fire Code. 4. Standby power for mechanical ventilation, treatment systems and temperature control systems shall not be required where an approved fail-safe engineered system is installed.

  42. Fire & Building Code Power Supply Requirements for Semiconductor Fabs • An emergency power system shall be provided in semiconductor fabrication facilities where required in IBC Section 415.9.10.1. • The emergency power system shall be designed to supply power automatically to required electrical systems when the normal electrical supply system is interrupted.

  43. Fire & Building Code Power Supply Requirements for Semiconductor Fabs • Emergency power shall be provided for electrically operated equipment and connected control circuits for the following systems in semiconductor fabrication facilities: 1. HPM exhaust ventilation systems. 2. HPM gas cabinet ventilation systems. 3. HPM exhausted enclosure ventilation systems. 4. HPM gas room ventilation systems. 5. HPM gas detection systems. 6. Emergency alarm systems. 7. Fire alarm systems. 8. Automatic sprinkler system monitoring and alarm systems. 9. Electrically operated systems when required elsewhere in order to use, store or handle HPM.

  44. Fire & Building Code Power Supply Requirements for Semiconductor Fabs • 415.9.10.2 Exhaust ventilation systems. Exhaust ventilation systems are allowed to be designed to operate at not less than one-half the normal fan speed on the emergency power system where it is demonstrated that the level of exhaust will maintain a safe atmosphere.

  45. Power Supply Requirements for Smoke Control Systems Required smoke control systems shall be supplied with two sources of power. Primary power shall be the normal building power systems. Secondary power shall be from an approved standbysource complying with the Electrical Code. The standby power source and its transfer switches shall be in a separate room from the normal power transformers and switch gear and shall be enclosed in a room constructed of not less than 1-hour fire-resistance-rated fire barriers ventilated directly to and from the exterior. Power distribution from the two sources shall be by independent routes. Transfer to full standby power shall be automatic and within 60 seconds of failure of the primary power. The systems shall comply with the ICC Electrical Code. Elements of the smoke management system relying on controls such as computer or microprocessor memories shall be supplied with uninterruptable power sources adequate to span a 15-minute primary power interruption.

  46. Fire & Building Code Power Supply Requirements Exit Illumination The power supply for means of egress illumination shall normally be provided by the premise’s electrical supply. In the event of power supply failure, an emergency electrical system shall automatically power the illumination for the following types of areas: 1. Exit access corridors, passageways and aisles when two or more means of egress are required. 2. Exit access corridors and exit stairways located in buildings required to have two or more exits. 3. Exterior egress components at other than the level of exit discharge until exit discharge is accomplished for buildings required to have two or more exits. 4. Interior exit discharge elements, as permitted in Section IBC 1023.1, in buildings required to have two or more exits. 5. The portion of the exterior exit discharge immediately adjacent to exit discharge doorways in buildings required to have two or more exits.

  47. Fire & Building Code Power Supply Requirements Exit Illumination The emergency power system shall provide power for a duration of not less than 90 minutes and shall consist of storage batteries, unit equipment or an on-site generator. The installation of the emergency power system shall be in accordance with IBC Section 2702.

  48. Fire & Building Code Power Supply Requirements Exit Signs Exit signs shall be illuminated at all times. Continued illumination for a duration of not less than 90 minutes is required when there is a primary power loss. The sign illumination means shall be connected to an emergency power system provided from storage batteries, unit equipment or an on-site generator. Exception: When approved exit sign illumination means provide continuous illumination independent of external power sources for a duration of not less than 90 minutes, in case of primary power loss, an emergency electrical system is not required.

  49. Fueling Issues For Outdoor Generator Sets • General Requirements for Outdoor Diesel Generator Installations • Secondary containment required. If double walled tank is used, interstitial leak detection is required in tank annular space. • Normal vent routed outside weather enclosures at least 12 feet above grade • AFD Aboveground Hazardous Materials Permit is required if greater than 275 gallons.

  50. Fueling Issues For Outdoor Generator Sets • A public hearing is required if the aggregate volume is greater than 12,000 gallons. • NFPA 704 placard and DIESEL signs required on tank. • Vehicle impact protection per IFC. • Must be within 150 feet of fire department access road and must have at least one fire hydrant within 500 feet.

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