“ No writing – no science !” Academic Writing

1. “No writing – no science!”Academic Writing Шарапкова Анастасия Андреевна warapkova@mail.ru

2. theories Use the following words foundation To buttress to shore up to support shaky to fall apart form solid to stand on strength collapsed foundation framework • THEORIES (and ARGUMENTS) ARE BUILDINGS • Is that the ________for your theory? • The theory needs more_________ • The argument is________. We need some more facts or the argument will_______. We need to _________strong argument for that. • I haven't figured out yet what the ________of the argument will be. Here are some more facts to ___________the theory. • We need to ________the theory with _______arguments. • The theory will the _______of that argument. • The argument________. • They exploded his latest theory. We will show that theory to be without_____. So far we have put together only the of the theory. • (Lakoff and Johnson Metaphors we live by)

3. Is that the foundation for your theory? The theory needs more support. The argument is shaky. We need some more facts or the argument will fall apart. We need to construct strong argument for that. I haven't figured out yet what the form of the argument will be. Here are some more facts to shore up the theory. We need to buttress the theory with solid arguments. The theory will stand on the strength of that argument. The argument collapsed. They exploded his latest theory. We will show that theory to be without foundation. So far we have put together only the framework of the theory.

4. Argument • A circular, conclusive, convincing, detailed, elegant, general, logical, persuasive, rational, sound, strong, valid, powerful, main, general, explicit, critical, overall, counter, decisive … • the essence ( the heart) of an argument/ fail to make a (_) argument/ a similar argument holds for these cases/ • but! Solid evidence! – more often • + about/against/over/for

5. Для каждой части статьи, для каждого типа информации существуют свои set phrases! • Many hypotheses regarding something appear to be ill-defined / unfounded / not well grounded /unsupported / questionable / disputable / debatable • So, researchers try to establish the facts, that they could draw from their material or experimental data. They hope that the facts will bear out or support their hypothesis, they would show the strong points of your research. The facts could be reliable, little-known, relevant and even undeniable.

6. LAW OF CONTINUITY Experiments should be reproducible. They should all fail in the same way. 11-%– reproducible 33 % - reproducible with some discrepancies 56 % - were not reproducible at all

7. Major rules on writing methodology section • What / Who did I study? What hypotheses was I testing? • Where did I carry out this study and what characteristics did this location have? • How did I design my experiment / sampling and what assumptions did I make? • What variable was I measuring and why? • How did I handle / house / treat my materials / subjects? What kind of care / precautions were taken? • What equipment did I use (plus modifications) and where did this equipment come from (vendor source)? • What protocol did I use for collecting my data? • How did I analyze the data? Statistical procedures? Mathematical equations? Software? • What probability did I use to decide significance? • What references to the literature could I give to save me having to describe something in detail? • What difficulties did I encounter? • How does my methodology compare with previously reported methods, and what significant advances does it make? ( Wallwork- p 219)

8. Methods – маркированное использование времен • Two dye jets are placed in the laser cavity, a gain jey is then excited by an argon ion laser and the pulses are spatially filtered in order to obtain a Gasuan beam. Polarisationis confirmed using a polarizing cube. The pulses were split into reference pulses and the reference pulses were carefully aligned into the detector to minimize noise levels.

9. Change • Fig.4 shows the time dynamics of two indicators revealing significant differences between them with more smoother dynamics for Ae and with high-amplitude random fluctuations for As. Besides, comparing of O2 and F3 graphs reveals a whole series of episodes of opposite tendencies between two indexes, i.e. differences in their topographical relations. For example Asi and Aei estimates in O2 are significantly different but in F3 they are equal or their ratio is changes to opposite. Such topographic differences are extremely disturbing as they can lead to differences in results and conclusions for intergroup comparisons estimating influence of various factors as age, sex, occupation, pathology, functional condition, motivation, social or professional affiliation, etc

10. A revised version • Significant difference between the time dynamics of two indicators is illustrated in (by) Fig.4: the dynamics for Ae is smoother as compared to a high-amplitude random fluctuations for As. Besides, comparing O2 and F3 graphs reveals a whole series of episodes of opposite tendencies between two indexes, i.e. differences in their topographical relations. For example Asi and Aei estimates differ significantly in O2, but they are equal or their ratio changes to opposite in F3. Such topographic differences are extremely disturbing because they can lead to incompatibility of results and conclusions for intergroup comparisons estimating influence of various factors such as age, sex, occupation, pathology, functional condition, motivation, social or professional affiliation, etc.

11. Change • For more detailed numerical study of adequacy of considered indicators a several methodological approaches can be used. As the equivalence of free natural estimates has been shown above then in further comparisons we will mainly use the measure based on envelope.

12. A revised version • Several methodological approaches can be applied for a more detailed numerical study of adequacy of considered indicators. As the equivalence of free natural estimates has been shown above then in further comparisons we mainly use the measure based on an envelope.

13. Order of things • We examined the sediment and thenauplii after 1.5, 3, 6, 12, and 14 months. In order to examine them, the nauplii were extracted from the sediment and washed in fresh water several times before imaging, SEM-analyses, and chitin staining.

14. The nauplii were extracted from the sediment and washed in fresh water several times prior to ….

15. The sample, which was filtered and acidified at pH 2, was mixed with X. • The sample was filtered and acidified at pH 2 and then mixed with X.

16. Ambiguity • Employing a straight platinum wire rabbit, sheep and human blood agar plates were inoculated • Having completed the study, the bacteria were of no further interest.

17. Nouns and their use

18. Double nouns • Work – a work • language- a language • Structure – a structure • time – times

19. a cactus, fungus, radius, stimulus, genius; b alga, formula (in science), vertebra, antenna; с bacterium, curriculum, datum, medium, memorandum, stratum, millennium; d index (in mathematics, in books); e appendix (in books, in medicine); f analysis, axis, basis, crisis, diagnosis, hypothesis, oasis, parenthesis, thesis; g criterion, phenomenon.

20. Antenna может быть и antennas и Antennae в зависимости от того, в какой журнал вы подаете! • data сейчас может быть и множественным – от datum и собирательным как evidence

24. Of these papers, less than a half deals / deal with this issue. • 2. A number of authors has / have claimed that x = y. • 3. The number of publications per year is / are reported in Table 3. • 4. The majority of articles only covers / cover marginal issues. • 5. None of the instruments work / works . • 6. Both clinical and neuropathological evidence shows / show that these symptoms are…

26. Articles • ( максимальнаяабстракция) • She was woman enough not to believe him • I want to work there for experience • ( классификация) • A novel could start or end with a death or a marriage •  it can be an experience that is both liberating and protecting.  (единичныйвариант) • -I thought you were the couple. -No, we were just a couple.

27. Correct • Use (-) when the process is general and abstract • As the MFC component, in most cases eIF5 must be present in the 43S ribosomal complex from the very moment of its formation, and it essentially contributes to AUG selection during the scanning (1). • It is characterized by a gradation of density, grain size, oxygen content, flocculation degree and other parameters, which are normally formed within upper bottom layers • The ambiguity is one characteristic of English language

28. Survey of importance of improving design of internal systems • A survey of the importance of improving the design of internal systems • Сollected live nauplii were washed from the salt, and left in the fresh water for 4-10 hours in the refrigerator (4-6°C) to get them die.

29. Difference in meaning • Lack of protective immunity against reinfection with hepatitis C virus Feedback and optimal sensitivity • Vibration analysis for electronic equipment (a title)

30. Correct • Use a when it doesn’t matter which particular thing you are referring to. You are just classifying things ( + a new piece of knowledge for the reader) • These conclusions do not allow metrologically qualify the spectral estimates of average EEG amplitude as analytical tool adequate to the nature and specifics of EEG potentials. • Most of them recognized the first AUG (AUG0), but a significant portion reached the second one (AUG1) presumably via leaky scanning due to rather short leader (3). • Visually guided, or “reflexive”, saccades are most frequently considered to be logical object for studying PD dysfunctions • In the review of the/a empirical research comparing ESL writers and native speakers of English

31. Participants were tested in the room with the temperature of 20-22 ºС. The subjects were not allowed to take food and caffeine contain beverages at least 2 hours prior to the examination.

32. Correct • Use the when you and your reader both understand what you are talking about or there is only one referent • Visually guided, or “reflexive”, saccades are most frequently considered to be logical object for studying PD dysfunctions. In designing the outline of the experiment the investigators often focus on one of easily manipulated experimental variables — the time between the fixation stimulus offset and the target stimulus onset. • As it is follows from special monographic review (Shanbao, Nitish, 2009) and from many journal articles on QEEG, metrological questions almost do not attracted the attention of EEG researchers.

33. Fresh water instead of saline solution serves to simplify chemistry at this initial stage of organic-water-sediment interplay • We found that the 77 K absorption spectra of snowy PSII core complex samples used for phosphorescence measurements were significantly distorted, especially at shorter wavelengths, due to a strong light scattering, even if a spectrophotometer equipped with an integrating sphere was employed (not shown). Because of this, in a work we analyzed absorption spectra of core complexes measured at 95 K using transparent thin films sealed between two CaF2 windows in an optical cell used for FTIR measurements.

34. This delay most probably reflected ____time needed for ___43S skipping AUG1 to arrive to AUG2 and thus illustrates the process of ___leaky scanning. • Nauplii, which were placed alive into colloidal solution, took up the upper portion of the sediment

35. Proper names • The presence of analuminium hydroxide or an oxide as well as sulfides, sulfates, and sulfites in suspensions was carried out according to the routine procedures • не один атом! • The Pseudomonas syringae type-III effector HopG1 induces actin remodeling to promote symptom development and susceptibility during infection

36. Choose the best variant • The turbulence (turbulence ) may be studied by examining the fluid velocity fields in the ___internal combustion engines

37. Generic “the” • The basic structure of the brain is affected by the sum of genetic and inheritable properties

38. Sometimes the choice of a or the changes the meaning of the sentence completely • This effect may hide a connection between the two • This effect may hide the connection between the two • S7. The factors that determine depression • S8. Factorsthatdeterminedepression

39. Lego-model

40. Details: It is mounted on / connected to / attached to / fastened to / fixed to / surrounded by / covered with / integrated into / embedded onto / encased in / housed in / aligned with …/ frozen/ washed/ It is located in / situated in / positioned on ….

43. How can I stress the choice of alternative methods? • In order to validate the results, we first had to ... • In an attempt to identify the components, it was decided to ... • To provide a way of characterizing the samples, an adaptation of Smith’s method [2011] was used. • For the purpose of investigating the patients previous medical history, we ... • Our aim was to get a general picture of ... • This choice was aimed at getting a general picture of ... • In order to identify / understand / investigate / study / analyze X … • To enable / allow us to … , we … • To see / determine / check / verify / determine whether … • To control / test for X, Y was done. • So that we could / would be able to do X, we … • In an attempt / effort to do X, we … • X was done / We did X in order to …

44. Correct Tense? Formal-informal language • It is done a lot to prevent the free divers reach the values of anoxic collapse. During the competitions, the participant should accomplish the Surface Protocol and convince the judge that he or she does not have a loss of consciousness and motor control after the dive. Only after that, the result is scored.

45. A revised version • In order to prevent the free divers from reaching the values of anoxic collapse we performed ( changed) ________ several times. During the competitions, the participant should have accomplished the Surface Protocol and convince the judge that he or she does not have a loss of consciousness and motor control after the dive. Only after that, the results were scored.

46. Знание синонимов • Оценивать • appraise, estimate, evaluate, appreciate, judge • не отмечены в словаре: calculate, consider, assess • Более нейтральное и употребительное Rating scales to assess depression in school-aged children. – Шкала оценки депрессивности у школьников. • Более формальное, менее употребительное, имеет оттенок оценки качества • It's impossible to evaluate these results without knowing more about the research methods employed. – Невозможно оценить эти результаты, не зная больше о методах, которыми их получили. • Нейтральное, оценивать, исчислять • F’s hypothesis is based on a careful estimation of variations within …. Assess Evaluate Estimate

47. What is the difference? • Более формальное, менее употребительное, • Связано с качеством • It's impossible to evaluate these results without knowing more about the research methods employed. – Невозможно оценить эти результаты, не зная больше о методах, которыми их получили. Evaluate Assess • Более нейтральное и употребительное • Rating scales to assess depression in school-aged children. • – Шкала оценки депрессивности у школьников.

48. Estimate Evaluate Assess IMPACT OBJECTIVES SIGNIFICANCE ASPECTS ACTIVITY IMPORTANCE QUALITY RISK DEGREE VALIDITY AMOUNT STRENGTH CHANGES INFLUENCE DAMAGES COST NUMBER PROPORTION PREVALENCE VALUE ACTIVITYDOSE EQUIVALENCE NUMBERS DEGREELEVEL MAGNITUDE POTENTIAL RATE DOMINANCE PROPORTIONS FIGURES PRACTICE APPROACH RESEARCH   EFFECTIVENESS EFFICACY INFORMATION STUDIES EFFECTS  ABILITY POTENTIAL PROGRESS ORDER IMPACT Употребляется больше для оценки количественных показателей Употребляется больше для оценки качественных показателей Обладает наибольшей областью применения

49. Полностью оценить важность этого принципа можно только после появления дополнительных данных • To evaluate this principle would be possible after obtaining new data • Assessing the significance of this principle would be possible after • To appreciate the full significance of this principle would be possible after • The full significance of this principle could be appreciated after

50. Measure • This measure indicates • give/ provide a measure • a method of measuring • accurate, direct, objective, precise • an accurate measure of length