What Makes Cultures Different: Concepts and Descriptors of Culture

What Makes Cultures Different:Concepts and Descriptors of Culture ”Das Problem des Fundalismus im Islam kann nur aus dem Islam selbst heraus gelöst werden. Der Westen besitzt kulturelldazu keinen Schlüssel.” ”[…] dem Verlust alter Ordnungsmuster, der Armut, Destabilisierung oder Demütigung ganzer Kulturen und Regionen.” “Unter dem Slogan, dass wir keinen Krieg der Kulturen wollen, führen wir faktisch genau diesen.” Christine Pahlmann Jens Tiefenstädter

Gestures and meaning Graphic from: Göpferich, Susanne. Interkulturelles Technical Writing. Fachliches adressatengerecht vermitteln. Gunter Narr Verlag, Tübingen. 1998 p.287

Agenda • Definitions of Culture • Descriptors / Dimensions of Culture • Edward T. Hall • Geert Hofstede • Fons Trompenaars • Flaws / Weaknesses & General Problems of Working with “Cultures” • Selected Readings / Sources

1. Definitions of Culture There exist various definitions of culture. We’d like to introduce into the most common in modern intercultural studies. The word ‚Culture‘ comes from the Latin colere, which stands for cultivation of soil and plants. It first appeared in the 17th century, in opposition to nature. Culture stood for things created by mans own will and skill.

What Means Culture to You? Discussion: • What do you think culture is?

Definitions of Cultures –Hochkultur: Goethe, Duerer & Co. The German elites often defined culture as Hochkultur. Heinrich Rickert:[Kultur ist die...]„Gesamtheit der realen Objekte, an denen allgemein anerkannte Werte oder durch sie konstruierte Sinngebilde haften und die mit Rücksicht auf die Werte gepflegt werden.“ 5 • Rickert, Heinrich. Kulturwissenschaft und Naturwissenschaft. P.28 in: • Maletzke, Gerhard. Interkulturelle Kommunikation. Westdeutscher Verlag, Opladen. 1996 p. 16

Definitions of Cultures – Culture as Communication and Interpretation Knowledge Keesing R.:„Culture, conceived as a system of competence shared in its broad design and deeper principles [...] is then not all of what an individual knows and thinks and feels about his (or her) world. It is his (or her) theory of what his (or her) fellows know, believe, and mean, his (or her) theory of the code being followed, the game being played, in the society into which he (or she) was born...“7 7 Keesing, R. Theories of culture. Annual Review of Anthropology, 3. 1974. p.73-97 in: Gudykunst, William B., Kim, Young Yun. Communicating with strangers. Mc Graw-Hill, New York. 1992 p.12

Definitions of Cultures – Culture as Communication System Edward T. Hall:„Cultures are unified wholes in which everything interrelates.“1 „Any culture is primarily a system for creating, sending, storing and processing information. Communication underlies everything.“2 According to Hall, 80 to 90% of communication are not language, but words, material things and behaviour. • Hall, Edward T. Hidden Differences Doing Business with the Japanese. Anchor Books 1987. p.XVIII • Hall, Edward T. Hidden Differences Doing Business with the Japanese. Anchor Books 1987. p.3

The Unconscious Defines Culture Edward T. Hall:Culture defines CommunicationCommunication defines Culture.Hall introduces the term “informatics” for the behaviour outside conscious awareness. It includes evolutionary, emergent ideas, practices and solutions and even shared experiences that we all hold.

Culture as Communication System – is Masterable Edward T. Hall:„Culture can be likened to an enormous, subtle extraordinarily complex computer. It programs the actions and responses of every person, and these programs must be mastered by anyone wishing to make the system work“3 3 Hall, Edward T. Hidden Differences Doing Business with the Japanese. Anchor Books 1987. p.4

Definitions of cultures – Culture as Way of Dealing With Problems Fons Trompenaars, Geert Hofstede: „Culture is the way in which a group of people solves problems and reconciles dilemmas.“6 6 Trompenaars, Fons. Riding the waves of culture. McGraw-Hill, New York. 1998. p.6

Culture is “What we Take for Granted” In order to work with cultures, to describe them, we need a common ground or definition. Hofstede’s definition, culture as set of problem solutions and basic understanding of the world, is a good basis. It is more fundamental than the ‘Hochkultur’ or even culture as tacit civilization and includes Hall’s point of view, culture as communication system, and other definitions that see culture as tool for differentiating groups.

Agenda • Definitions of Culture  • Descriptors / Dimensions of Culture • Edward T. Hall • Geert Hofstede • Fons Trompenaars • Flaws / Weaknesses & general Problems of working with “Cultures” • Selected Readings / Sources

2. Descriptors / Dimensions of Culture Examining cultures and gathering data on them can be done in two ways. Trying to understand a particular culture from the inside point of view … .. Or looking from the outside trying to find variables that occur in many cultures and thus enable comparison.

2. Dimensions of Culture – Emic / Etic Approach The linguist Pike named these approaches first: Understanding from the inside point of view, is called Emic, While the outside examination and comparison of one culture with another is called Etic. Both approaches are useful and have strengths and weaknesses. Cf. Pike, K.L. Etic and emic standpoints for the description of behaviour. In L. Wheeler (Ed.), Review of personality and social psychologie (Vol 3), Sage Publications, Beverly Hills.

2. Dimensions of Culture – Etic – Search for Comparable Elements In our opinion, it is possible to examine certain phenomena without knowing why they occur, for example proxemics. Such phenomena can usually be measured and thus compared with other cultures. The etic approach gives us comparable data, it helps us to familiarize ourselves with visible habits of other cultures. Alas it cannot give us explanations of the underlying motivation for these phenomena.

2. Dimensions of Culture – Emic – Understanding Like a Native The emic approach can’t help us comparing one culture with another. But it may help us understanding the underlying rules and values that shape the visible rim of a culture, for a culture is described as the subjects of this culture perceive it.

2. Dimensions of Culture – Emic / Etic – When to Use Which? Discussion: • What do you think where the strengths and weaknesses of these approaches are? • Is a pure etic or pure emic approach possible? Or do we always compare with our own experience? Is it possible to understand phenomena as a foreigner?

2. Descriptors / Dimensions of Culture – The big 5 – General Questions According to Florence Kluckhorn and Fred Strodtbeck mankind faces 5 general dilemmas coming forth from interaction with fellow humans, time, nature and activities. These dilemmas need to be solved, for every dilemma, there exist but a limited number of solutions. Every culture can choose from these solutions. By the particular selection, cultures can be compared.

2. Descriptors / Dimensions of Culture – The Big 5 – General Questions Graphic according to: Maletzke, Gerhard. Interkulturelle Kommunikation. Westdeutscher Verlag, Opladen. 1996 p.82

2. Dimensions of Culture – Pattern Variables Parsons and Shils introduced the concept of pattern variables in 1951. “Pattern variables are mutually exclusive choices individuals make prior to engaging in action. The choices are made both consciously and unconsciously; however, they are generally made unconsciously since they are learned during the socialization process at an early age.”8 8 Gudykunst, William B., Kim, Young Yun. Communicating with strangers. Mc Graw-Hill, New York. 1992 p.51

2. Dimensions of Culture – Pattern Variables • Self-orientation vs. collective-orientation(= individualism vs. collectivism) • Affectivity vs. Affective NeutralityWhat is the nature of the gratification we seek? • Universalism vs. ParticularismHow do we categorize people and objects? • Diffuseness vs. SpecificityHow do we respond to people and objects? • Ascription vs. AchievementAre people / objects treated in terms of their ascribed or their achieved qualities ? • Instrumental vs. Expressive OrientationWhat is the nature of our goals of interaction?

2.1 Dimensions of Culture – Edward T. Hall High and Low Context Space TimeSpeed of messages (Fast / Slow)

2.1 Dimensions of Culture – Hall – High and Low Context Context is the information surrounding an object or event. Together with the object / event these additional information produce a meaning. The proportion event / context differs from culture to culture. The two poles are: High Context  Low Context

2.1 Dimensions of Culture – Hall – High and Low Context

2.1 Dimensions of Culture – Hall – Space Space is organized and perceived differently in cultures. Space has the function of giving order, organization and even clues about the social position of an individual. There exist several boundaries around us. Innermost the physical boundary of our body, outermost our “territorial border”. Any border beside the physical border is individually perceived and chosen and shaped by culture. Violating or accepting the borders is communication.

2.1 Dimensions of Culture – Hall – Space Territoriality: “Feeling about personal space”Often communicates status, e.g. size and position of office, neighbourhood… Personal Space: The size of an invisible bubble around us. Sort of a mobile territory.The size depends on the situation, emotional states, culture a.o.

2.1 Dimensions of Culture – Hall – Time Time Natural: Circles: Day / night, seasons, life circle Time as Structure Time as Communication • Monochronic Appointments, advance time • Polychronic Speed of actions

2.1 Dimensions of Culture – Hall – Time as Structure

2.1 Dimensions of Culture – Hall – Time as Communication Time is the primary system of organization, the informal rules can be used to communicate.E.g.: Advance time, proper timing, appointments Rhythm and speed, time needed for making decisions, for talking, for getting used to another. This phenomenon is closely related to Hall’s speed of messages as described later.

2.1 Dimensions of Culture – Hall – Speed of Messages Hall defines culture as communication system. Therefore every action transmits information that can be decoded in different speeds. Cultures, persons, messages all might have a particular speed necessary to decode them. People used to a different speed find it difficult to decode them.

2.1 Dimensions of Culture – Hall - Speed of Messages

2.2 Dimensions of Culture – Hofstede’s Definition of Culture Culture 1:"Refinement of the mind" and in particular the results of such refinement like education, art and literature Culture 2: The set of mental rules, the software of the mind.(cf. Hall, Trompenaars) Culture, as mental software, is at least partly shared with other people who live or lived within the same social environment. This shared software distinguishes members of one group from others. Even for adults it is possible, though it might be hard, to adopt to or learn a different set of mental rules. The mental softwareis learned throughout the whole live. Cf. Hofstede, Geert. Lokales Denken, Globales Handeln. C.H. Beck, Munich. 1997 p.3f

Applies to… Level How achieved… individual Personality experienced + learned specific to group or category experienced Culture universal inherited Human nature 2.2 Dimensions of Culture – Hofstede’s Definition of Culture Cf. Hofstede, Geert. Lokales Denken, Globales Handeln. C.H. Beck, Munich. 1997 p.5

Heroes Practices Values Rituals Symbols 4+1 Dimensions 2.2 Dimensions of Culture – Hofstede’s Onion Values determine the definition of good and bad, logical vs. paradoxical … Rituals: Collective activities which are considered socially essential. Heroes: Represent characteristics which are highly prized in a culture. Symbols: Words, gestures, objects which carry a specific meaning which is only recognised within the culture "Practices" are visible to outsiders and therefore can be learned.

2.2 Dimensions of Culture – Hofstede’s 4+1 Dimensions The dimensions are situated between the core and the practices. Individual expressions and feelings based on values, but not unquestioned collective rituals. • Power Distance • Masculinity / Femininity • Uncertainty Avoidance • Individualism / Collectivism • Confucian Dynamics

2.2 Dimensions of Culture – Power Distance “Power distance, as a characteristic of a culture, defines the extent to which the less powerful person in a society accepts inequality in power and considers it as normal. Inequality exists within any culture, but the degree of it that is tolerated varies between one culture and another.” “All societies are unequal, but some are more unequal than others.”

2.2 Dimensions of Culture – Masculine vs. Feminine Cultures Defines the predetermination of gender roles in a society. Masculine cultures use the biological existence of two sexes to define the different social roles of men and women.Men are expected to be assertive, ambitious and competitive and to strive for material success.Women are expected to serve and to care for the non-material quality of life, for children and the weak.

2.2 Dimensions of Culture – Feminine Cultures Feminine cultures define relatively overlapping social roles for the sexes, in which neither men nor women need to be ambitious or competitive.Both sexes may go for a different quality of life than material success and may respect whatever is small, weak and slow.

2.2 Dimensions of Culture – Masculine vs. Feminine Cultures • Masculinity • Earnings • Social recognition • Advancement (career) • Challenge • Femininity • Manager (good relations to superior) • Cooperative work • Comfortable living area • Employment secureness

2.2 Dimensions of Culture – Uncertainty Avoidance Defines the extend to which people within a culture are made nervous by situations that consider to be unstructured, unclear, or unpredictable, and the extend to which they try to avoid such situations by adopting strict codes of behaviour and a believe in absolute truth.

2.2 Dimensions of Culture – Uncertainty Avoidance Cultures with weak UA • contemplative • less aggressive • unemotional • accepting of personal risk • relatively tolerant Cultures with strong UA • active • aggressive • emotional • security-seeking • intolerant

2.2 Dimensions of Culture – Individualism vs. Collectivism Collectivist cultures Individuals are assumed to belong to one or more close “in-groups” from which they can not detach themselves. Tightly integrated. In-group offers protection but demands loyalty. Individualist cultures Individuals are assumed to look primarily after their own interest and those of their immediate family. Loosely integrated.

2.2 Dimensions of Culture – Are there differences to Hall’s dimensions? Discussion: • Is there a qualitative difference to Hall’s dimensions or Parsons’ patterns? • Do you think Uncertainty Avoidance, Context (HC/LC) and Universalism / Particularism correlate?

Artifacts / Products: Hofstedes Practices Norms and Values: Hofstedes Core Core: Basic assumptions about dealing with nature and people 2.3 Dimensions of Culture – Trompenaars’ Onion Trompenaars adds to Hofstedes’ onion a new core which contains the basic assumptions about nature and mankind. These are derived from Kluckhorn’s and Strodbeck’s value orientation.

Attitude to people 2.3 Dimensions of Culture – Fons Trompenaars • Universalism vs. Particularism (Parsons) • Individualism vs. Collectivism (Parsons) • Neutral vs. Emotional (cf. Affectively neutral vs. Emotional (Parsons)) • Specific vs. Diffuse (Parsons + LC/HC) • Achievement vs. Ascription (Parsons) • Attitude to time (Hall / Strodbeck) • Attitude to the environment. (Strodbeck)

Agenda • Definitions of Culture  • Descriptors / Dimensions of Culture  • Edward T. Hall  • Geert Hofstede  • Fons Trompenaars  • Flaws / Weaknesses & general Problems of working with “Cultures” • Selected Readings / Sources

What Makes Cultures Different: Concepts and Descriptors of Culture