Chapter 1 The Foundations: Logic and Proofs

1. 歐亞書局 Discrete Mathematics and Its Applications Sixth Edition By Kenneth Rosen Chapter 1The Foundations: Logic and Proofs

2. 歐亞書局 • 1.1Propositional Logic • 1.2 Propositional Equivalences • 1.3 Predicates and Quantifiers • 1.4 Nested Quantifiers • 1.5 Rules of Inference • 1.6 Introduction to Proofs • 1.7 Proof Methods and Strategy P. 1

3. 1.1 Propositional Logic • Logic: to give precise meaning to mathematical statements • Proposition: a declarative sentence that is either true or false, but not both • 1+1=2 • Toronto is the capital of Canada • Propositional variables: p, q, r, s • Truth value: true (T) or false (F)

4. Compound propositions: news propositions formed from existing propositions using logical operators • Definition 1: Let p be a proposition. The negation of p, denoted by p (orp), is the statement “It is not the case that p.” • “not p”

5. 歐亞書局 TABLE 1 (1.1) P. 3

6. Definition 2: Let p and q be propositions. The conjunction of p and q, denoted by p q, is the proposition “p and q.” • Definition 3: Let p and q be propositions. The disjunction of p and q, denoted by pq, is the proposition “p or q.”

7. 歐亞書局 TABLE 2 (1.1) P. 4

8. 歐亞書局 TABLE 3 (1.1) P. 4

9. Definition 4: Let p and q be propositions. The exclusive or of p and q, denoted by pq, is the proposition that is true when exactly one of p and q is true and is false otherwise.

10. 歐亞書局 TABLE 4 (1.1) P. 6

11. Conditional Statements • Definition 5: Let p and q be propositions. The conditional statementpq is the proposition “if p, then q.” • p: hypothesis (or antecedent or premise) • q: conclusion (or consequence) • Implication • “p implies q” • Many ways to express this…

12. 歐亞書局 TABLE 5 (1.1) P. 6

13. Converse, Contrapositive, and Inverse • pq • Converse: qp • Contrapositive: qp • Inverse: pq • Two compound propositions are equivalent if they always have the same truth value • The contrapositive is equivalent to the original statement • The converse is equivalent to the inverse

14. Biconditionals • Definition 6: Let p and q be propositions. The biconditional statementpq is the proposition “p if and only if q.” • “bi-implications” • “p is necessary and sufficient for q” • “p iff q”

15. 歐亞書局 TABLE 6 (1.1) P. 9

16. Implicit Use of Biconditionals • Biconditionals are not always explicit in natural language • Imprecision in natural language • “If you finish your meal, then you can have dessert.” • “You can have dessert if and only if you finish your meal.”

17. 歐亞書局 TABLE 7 (1.1) P. 10

18. Precedence of Logical Operators • Negation operator is applied before all other logical operators • Conjunction operator takes precedence over disjunction operator • Conditional and biconditional operators have lower precedence • Parentheses are used whenever necessary

19. 歐亞書局 TABLE 8 (1.1) P. 11

20. Translating English Sentences • Ex.12: “You can access the Internet from campus only if you are a computer science major or you are not a freshman.” • Ex.13: “You cannot ride the roller coaster if you are under 4 feet tall unless you are older than 16 years old.”

21. Examples • Boolean Searches • New AND Mexico AND universities • (Mexico AND universities) NOT New • Logic Puzzles • Ex. 18: • Knights always tell the truth, and knaves always lie • A says “B is a knight” • B says “The two of us are opposite types” • What are A and B? • Ex. 19

22. Logic and Bit Operations • Bit: binary digit • Boolean variable: either true or false • Can be represented by a bit • Definition 7: A bit string is a sequence of zero or more bits. The length of this string is the number of bits in the string.

23. 歐亞書局 TABLE 9 (1.1) P. 15

24. 1.2 Propositional Equivalences • Definition 1: • Tautology: a compound proposition that is always true • Contradiction: a compound proposition that is always false • Contingency: a compound proposition that is neither a tautology nor a contradiction

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26. Logical Equivalence • Compound propositions that have the same truth values in all possible cases • Definition 2: Compound propositions p and q are logically equivalent if pq is a tautology (denoted by pq or pq ) • De Morgan’s Law •  (p q)  pq •  (pq)   p q

27. 歐亞書局 TABLE 2 (1.2) P. 22

28. 歐亞書局 TABLE 3 (1.2) P. 22

29. 歐亞書局 TABLE 4 (1.2) pq P. 23

30. 歐亞書局 TABLE 5 (1.2) P. 23

31. 歐亞書局 TABLE 6 (1.2) P. 24

32. 歐亞書局 TABLE 7 (1.2) P. 25

33. 歐亞書局 TABLE 8 (1.2) P. 25

34. Constructing New Logical Equivalence • How to show logical equivalence • Use a truth table (Example 2, 3, 4 in Tables 3, 4, 5) • Use logical identities that we already know • (Example 6, 7, 8)

35. 1.3 Predicates and Quantifiers • Predicate logic • Predicate: a property that the subject of the statement can have • Ex: x>3 • x: variable • >3: predicate • P(x): x>3 • The value of the propositional function P at x • P(x1,x2, …, xn): n-place predicate or n-ary predicate

36. Quantifiers • Quantification • Universal quantification: a predicate is true for every element • Existential quantification: there is one or more element for which a predicate is true

37. The Universal Quantifier • Domain: domain of discourse (universe of discourse) • Definition 1: The universal quantification of P(x) is the statement “P(x) for all values of x in the domain”, denoted by x P(x) • “for all xP(x)” or “for every xP(x)” • Counterexample: an element for which P(x) is false • When all elements in the domain can be listed, P(x1) P(x2) … P(xn)

38. The Existential Quantifier • Definition 2: The existential quantification of P(x) is the proposition “There exists an element x in the domain such that P(x)”, denoted by x P(x) • “there is an x such that P(x)” or “for some xP(x)” • When all elements in the domain can be listed, P(x1) P(x2) … P(xn)

39. 歐亞書局 TABLE 1 (1.3) P. 34

40. Other Quantifiers • Uniqueness quantifier: !x P(x) or 1x P(x) • There exists a unique x such that P(x) is true • Quantifiers with restricted domains • x<0 (x2>0) • Conditional: x(x<0  x2>0) • z>0 (z2=2) • Conjunction: z(z>0  z2=2)

41. Precedence of quantifiers •  and  have higher precedence than all logical operators • Ex: x P(x) Q(x) • (x P(x)) Q(x)

42. Logical Equivalence involving Quantifiers • Definition 3: statements involving predicates and quantifiers are logically equivalent if and only if they have the same truth value no matter which predicates are substituted and which domain is used • E.g. x (P(x)  Q(x)) and x P(x)  x Q(x)

43. Negating Quantified Expressions • x P(x) x P(x) • Negation of the statement “Every student in your class has taken a course in Calculus” • “There is a student in your class who has not taken a course in Calculus” • x Q(x) x Q(x)

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45. Translating from English into Logical Expressions • “Every student in this class has studied calculus” • “Some student in this class has visited Mexico” • “Every student in this class has visited either Canada or Mexico”

46. Using Quantifiers in system specifications • “Every mail message larger than one megabyte will be compressed” • “If a user is active, at least one network link will be available” • Examples from Lewis Carroll • “All lions are fierce” • “Some lions do not drink coffee” • “Some fierce creatures do not drink coffee”

47. Logic Programming • Prolog • Facts • E.g. • instructor(chan, math) • instructor(patel, os) • enrolled(kevin, math) • enrolled(kevin, os) • enrolled(juana, math) • Rules • E.g. • teaches(P,S) :- instructor(P,C), enrolled(S,C) • ?teaches(X, kevin)

48. 1.4 Nested Quantifiers • Two quantifiers are nested if one is within the scope of the other • x y (x+y=0) • x y ((x>0)  (y<0)  (xy<0)) • Thinking of quantification as loops • xy P(x, y) • x y P(x, y) • xy P(x, y) • x y P(x, y)

49. The order of quantifiers is important unless all quantifiers are universal quantifiers or all are existential quantifiers • xy P(x, y) vs. yx P(x, y) • P(x,y): “x+y=y+x” • x y Q(x, y) vs. yx Q(x, y) • Q(x,y): “x+y=0”

50. 歐亞書局 TABLE 1 (1.4) P. 53